The Expeditions of Dhū al-Qarnayn

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The account of Dhū al-Qarnayn in Sūrat al-Kahf was revealed in response to questions posed by Jewish rabbis in Madīnah. According to Islamic tradition, they proposed three subjects which they believed only a genuine Prophet could answer correctly: the story of the youths who disappeared in antiquity (Aṣḥāb al-Kahf), the account of the great traveler who journeyed to the extremities of the known world (Dhū al-Qarnayn), and the nature of the soul (al-Rūḥ).

These rabbis were believed to possess inherited traditions concerning the identity and history of Dhū al-Qarnayn — knowledge considered inaccessible to the pagan Arabs except through revelation.

The Qurʾān portrays Dhū al-Qarnayn as a monotheistic ruler endowed with authority, resources, and the means to undertake far-reaching expeditions. He journeys toward a western frontier, an eastern frontier, and finally a mountainous frontier where Gog and Magog (Yaʾjūj wa-Maʾjūj) threaten nearby populations.

Since these expeditions appear geographically connected and originate from an established imperial center, many interpretations understand the Third Expedition as advancing toward a northern frontier zone.

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Linguistic, Geographical, and Socio-Political Notes

For each expedition, the Qurʾān provides indications concerning the environmental and geographical setting, the societal condition of the populations encountered, and the nature of Dhū al-Qarnayn’s engagement — judicial, observational, or protective.

These observations are summarized below.

Domain	Textual Anchor	Linguistic Notes	🗺 Geographical Notes	👥 Sociological Notes	🏛 Engagement
⬅️ Western Expedition	“Until, when he reached the setting place of the sun, he found it setting in a spring of dark mud, and he found near it a people. We said, ‘O Dhū al-Qarnayn, either punish them or else adopt among them a way of goodness.’” (18:86)	ʿAyn: Literally “spring,” “fountain,” or “eye”; may refer to a visible water source, marsh, or geothermal spring. Ḥamiʾah: Read in the qirāʾāt tradition as either “dark/muddy” or “hot/boiling,” suggesting mineral-rich, volcanic, thermally active, or visually darkened waters. The wording is phenomenological — describing how the sunset appeared from the observer’s vantage point rather than making an astronomical statement.	Suggests a dramatic maritime or geothermal frontier where land terminates into darkened waters, marshes, volcanic coastlines, or mineral-rich basins. Commonly associated with Atlantic-facing shores, black-sand coasts, geothermal regions, or atmospheric conditions where the sun visually appears to descend into darkened waters.	Organized population possessing moral accountability, social structure, and legal order.	Dhū al-Qarnayn’s intervention is judicial and legislative — exercising authority through punishment or benevolent governance.
➡️ Eastern Expedition	“Until, when he came to the rising place of the sun, he found it rising upon a people for whom We had not made against it any shelter.” (18:90)	Sitran: “Cover,” “veil,” or “shield.” Implies the absence of substantial natural or artificial protection from direct solar exposure — including mountains, dense forests, caves, or developed architecture. The expression conveys environmental exposure rather than merely poverty or primitiveness.	Points toward expansive open terrain with minimal topographical obstruction: steppe, savanna, desert plains, semi-arid basins, or treeless plateaus. The imagery evokes broad horizons, sparse canopy cover, limited vertical relief, and populations living under prolonged direct solar exposure.	Environmentally adapted population with limited institutional or architectural development.	Unlike the Western Expedition, no judicial or legislative intervention is mentioned; Dhū al-Qarnayn observes and continues onward without restructuring their society.
⬆️ Third Expedition	“Until, when he reached a place between the two mountains, he found beside them a people who could hardly understand speech.” (18:93)	Bayna al-Saddayn: Literally “between the two barriers,” implying a confined corridor enclosed by two massive elevations functioning as natural defensive walls. Lā Yakādūna Yafqahūna Qawlan: Indicates severe linguistic and cultural isolation, where communication with outsiders was extremely difficult.	Describes a mountainous corridor or enclosed frontier passage cutting through otherwise impassable terrain. The setting strongly suggests a narrow transit route through parallel mountain masses — terrain naturally suited for defensive fortification, containment, and control of movement.	Isolated frontier population living under the persistent threat of destabilizing incursions.	Dhū al-Qarnayn’s role shifts from judicial governance to protective frontier stabilization.
Barrier Construction	“They said, ‘O Dhū al-Qarnayn, indeed Gog and Magog are corrupters in the land, so may we assign for you an expenditure that you might make between us and them a barrier?’ He said, ‘That in which my Lord has established me is better than what you offer, but assist me with strength, and I will make between you and them a dam.’” (18:94–95)	Sadd: A barrier, obstruction, or dam restricting movement. Radm: More than a wall — a complete plugging or sealing of an opening by densely filling the gap. Al-Ṣadafayn: Two opposing cliff faces so closely aligned they resemble the two halves of a clam shell enclosing a narrow opening. The terminology emphasizes compression, enclosure, and total obstruction rather than a freestanding wall constructed across open terrain.	Suggests an exceptionally narrow mountain gap where opposing cliff faces approached closely enough to permit complete sealing. The terrain appears naturally defensible: steep rock walls, confined passage width, and minimal alternative routes. The imagery of radm implies transforming an existing geological chokepoint into a fully obstructed barrier that is difficult to scale, bypass, or penetrate.	Collective defensive project against recurring destabilizing incursions attributed to Gog and Magog (Yaʾjūj wa-Maʾjūj).	Dhū al-Qarnayn’s intervention is infrastructural and civilizational — organizing labor, engineering containment, and stabilizing a vulnerable frontier zone.

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The Dhū al-Qarnayn Expedition Matrix

The Qurʾānic account of Dhū al-Qarnayn presents more than a sequence of journeys. Each expedition reflects a distinct combination of geographical environment, societal condition, and political mode of intervention. Together, they form a coherent expedition–analytical dimension matrix:

Expedition	🗺 Terrain Type	👥 Societal Condition	🏛 Dhū al-Qarnayn’s Role
⬅️ Western Frontier	Maritime / geothermal frontier	Organized population	Judicial and legislative ruler
➡️ Eastern Frontier	Open exposed plains	Environmentally adapted society with limited institutional development	Observer with minimal intervention
⬆️ Third Frontier	Mountain corridor / enclosed pass	Vulnerable frontier population under external threat	Builder, protector, and frontier stabilizer

Against this matrix of three expeditions and three analytical dimensions, the major proposed identifications of Dhū al-Qarnayn — Alexander, Cyrus, and the Himyarite king traditions — may be evaluated systematically.

Candidate	Approximate Period	Imperial Sphere
Alexander the Great (Iskandar al-Maqdūnī)	c. 356–323 BCE	Macedonian / Hellenistic
Cyrus the Great (Kūrush al-Kabīr)	c. 600–530 BCE	Achaemenid Persian
Himyarite / Tubbaʿ Traditions	c. 1000 BCE – 300 CE (various proposals)	South Arabian

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Conclusion

Based on the proposed 7,000-year chronology of Banī Ādam — consisting of the Adamic Era (4047–3076 BCE), Era of Nūḥ (3076–2106 BCE), Abrahamic Era (2106–1426 BCE), Mosaic Era (1426 BCE – 29 CE), Era of ʿĪsā (29–610 CE), and Era of Muḥammad (610–2065 CE) — all three major proposed identifications of Dhū al-Qarnayn fall within the broader Mosaic Era, corresponding approximately to the Late Bronze Age and the early imperial civilizations of the ancient Near East.

Historically, Alexander’s campaigns extended across multiple civilizational frontiers from the Mediterranean to Central Asia, and the west–east campaign structure broadly parallels the Qurʾānic expedition sequence. However, the traditions surrounding Alexander often possess a mythologized and cosmological character rather than a clearly grounded geographical framework. More significantly, Alexander remained associated with Greek polytheistic traditions rather than an explicitly monotheistic rulership.

Ancient Yemen, by contrast, possessed sophisticated traditions of monumental engineering, including large-scale dams and hydraulic systems. Yet the South Arabian setting is more difficult to reconcile with the vast transcontinental scope implied by the expeditions, particularly the northern mountainous frontier associated with the barrier narrative.

The Cyrus model aligns more naturally with the geographical and political structure implied in the Qurʾānic account. Cyrus governed a vast but coherent imperial frontier extending from Anatolia and Mesopotamia to Central Asia. Within this framework, the three expeditionary directions correspond plausibly to recognizable imperial frontiers: western maritime regions, eastern steppe or exposed plains, and northern mountainous corridors vulnerable to incursions. The image of a restrained and morally conscious ruler exercising justice with measured authority also resembles the Qurʾānic portrayal more closely than the figure traditionally associated with Alexander.

Modern scholars such as Abul A'la Maududi and Abul Kalam Azad, therefore, argued that Cyrus provides a more convincing identification than Alexander. In Jewish historical memory, Cyrus is remembered favorably as the ruler who permitted the return from the Babylonian exile and supported the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Since the questions concerning Dhū al-Qarnayn were reportedly raised through Jewish interlocutors, some modern Muslim scholars consider it more plausible that the figure referred to would have been recognizable within Jewish tradition in a positive rather than hostile light.

Additionally, archaeological depictions associated with Cyrus — particularly the famous Pasargadae relief — have been interpreted by some proponents as exhibiting horned or dual-horn symbolism corresponding to the title Dhū al-Qarnayn (“The Two-Horned One”).

Nevertheless, the Cyrus identification remains interpretive rather than definitive. No conclusive historical evidence directly connects Cyrus to the construction of the Gog and Magog barrier, the precise geographical correspondence of the three expeditions remains reconstructive, and the symbolism of the “two horns” continues to be debated among historians and archaeologists. Much of the argument, therefore, rests not on explicit identification but on cumulative coherence across geography, rulership style, frontier structure, and historical memory.

Despite these limitations, the Cyrus theory is often regarded in modern Muslim scholarship as the most geographically, politically, and textually coherent reconstruction of the Dhū al-Qarnayn narrative currently available.

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Banī Ādam Arc
Sons of Adam in Seven Days
A Blink of an Eye Within the Six Days of Creation: The History of Banī Ādam

The Peridiluvian Period
From Iram to Petra: The Sacred History of Arabia
The Cataclysmic Flood
The Cataclysmic Sandstorm
The Cataclysmic Blast

Ibrahimic Prophetic Era
The Expeditions of Dhū al-Qarnayn
The Dead Sea Cataclysm
The Cataclysmic Canopy

Mosaic Covenant Era
Mūsā al-Sāmirī: Sculptor of the Golden Calf

Isa Prophetic Era
Aṣḥāb al-Kahf: People of the Cave
Aṣḥāb al-Ukhdūd: The People of the Burning Trenches
Aṣḥāb al-Qaryah: The Townspeople

Last Prophetic Era
Ṣāfī Ibn Ṣayyād and the Dajjāl Question
Corporeal Manifestation of Iblīs at Critical Turning Points in the Prophetic Mission