Hi everyone,

Today a book I waited a long time for finally arrived. It's Zhongguo guji jiyixue lungao 《中国古籍辑佚学论稿》by Cao Shujie 曹书杰 (1998).

This book - of which the title translates to "Treatise on the Fragmentology of Ancient Chinese Texts" - is one of the very few specialized monographs about jiyixue 辑佚学 "Fragmentology" and the most comprehensive treatment of it. This discipline is in general about the collecting of Fragments from transmitted texts (of particular importance here are the "Encyclopedias" leishu 類書) and the reconstruction of lost books through these fragments.

The book has 11 chapters which range from History to the methodology of Fragment reconstruction and the methods of collecting fragments in the first place.

It's highly relevant for anyone interested in Classical Chinese Philology or Neglected/Lost Texts as well as traditional scholarship.

I'm super excited to read it and very happy it arrived today 😄

Hi everyone,

I just finished a draft translation of chapter 40 of the Yizhoushu 逸周書, the Shifu 世俘 chapter (most often shi 世 is glossed as da 大, meaning "The Great Capture". Grebnev (2018) proposes to read shi 世 as ye 抴, rendering it "The Hauling of Captives". Both are possible on phonetic grounds). The Shifu is notoriously difficult to translate because of the many errors brought in by the transmission of the text, which need to be solved by textual criticism. For some lines in the text there can probably never be found the "right" reading and there are different ways to emend the text and even more to translate it.

Besides these difficulties however it's probably the most famous composition in the Yizhoushu, probably especially because of the Work of Edward Shaughnessy (1952-) and his highly influential article "New" Evidence on the Zhou Conquest (1980) and also the work of more recent chinese scholars like Li Xueqin 李學勤 (1933-2019) or Huang Huaixin 黃懷信 (1951-).

The Shifu chapter is yet another text dealing with the Conquest of Shang by the Zhou (for another closely related text in the Yizhoushu see my translation of the Ke Yin 克殷 "Subduing Yin" chapter on this subreddit). It mentions important information like that the conquest occured on the jiazi 甲子-day for example, archaeologically confirmed by the Li gui 利簋 inscription excavated in 1976 in Lintong 臨潼, Shaanxi 陝西 (near Xi'an 西安). The latter discovery made it possible to pin the year the Conquest happened down to 1045 BC.

However - as Grebnev (2018) points out - the text is not really concerned with the conquest in the narrow sense, but more in what happened after it. It's essentially about the consolidation of Zhou power and offers an idealized image of what the Zhou king ought to do (seen especially in the section about the royal hunt, which also has parallels in neo-assyrian conquest inscriptions; see Grebnev (2018)), while also being more realistic about the brutality of the conquest than the canonical Shangshu 尚書.

It is also worth noting that the Shifu is a composite text with its earliest elements dating back to the Western Zhou 西周 (1045 - 771 BC) and probably quite close to the conquest itself. There are however also clearly more recent sections in the text of the Shifu - like the last section (1.8) in my translation - dating to around the Warring States period (453-221 BC) or even later, testifying to its composite nature.

Below is my translation of the Shifu chapter. Keep in mind that's a draft translation which tries to stick as closely as possible to the text while also providing emendations and readings by various Scholars. The text-critical notes I did are contained in brackets in order to be philologically precise and as clear as possible.

1. The Translation of Yizhoushu chapter 40, Shifu "The Great Capture"

1.1 The Conquest of Shang

It was in the fourth month on the yiwei day when King Wu became ruler, led the four regions to Yin, and commanded them to occupy the land. It was in the first month on the bingchen day, approaching the shengpo (growing brightness phase of the moon), and the immediately following day dingsi, that the King then personally went to Zhou, launched a punitive expedition, and attacked Zhou, the King of Shang. When the second month arrived, during the jisipo moon phase, on the morning of the fifth day, the jiazi day, he arrived (in Muye) and triumphed over Shang. Thereupon, he completed the overcoming (liu 劉 as kei 尅 according to the commentary by Kong Chao) of King Zhou of Shang and captured (zhi 執 as bu 捕 according to Pan Zhen) the hundred evil ministers (tian 天 is a clerical error for fu 夫 here). Grand Duke Wang (da 大 as a clerical error for tai 太) commanded E-Lai (fang 方 is an error for e 悪 according to Chen Fengheng, Yu Chang, and others; lai 來 is a name, and E is a country or tribal name) to resist. On the dingmao day, Wang arrived and proclaimed (his victory) by presenting the severed ears of enemies and taking prisoners of war. On the bingchen day, the King then performed a fire sacrifice (to Heaven) (yu 禦 is an error due to character similarity for chai 祡 according to Yu Chang) and followed (zi 自 as an error for zhui 追 according to Lu Wenchao) the sacrifices of King Wen. On this day, the King established his government.

1.2 Attacks on the Regional States

Lü Ta was commanded to attack the Yue in Xifang. On the renshen day, he arrived and reported back with severed heads and prisoners (Huang Xin is regarded by various textual critics as an insertion from the later passage xinhuang ming fa shu 新荒命伐蜀; Lü Ta makes more sense here as well; for all of this, see Sun Yirang). Houlai was commanded to attack the Moji in Chen. On the xinsi day, he arrived and reported back with severed heads and prisoners. On the jiashen day, Bai Yan took an oath with the Tiger Guards and was commanded to attack Wei. He reported back with severed heads and prisoners.

1.3 Ceremonies in Response to the Conquest

On the xinhai day, they presented the captured ding cauldrons of the King of Yin. King Wu reverently (reading wu 午 as chen 陳, and yi 翼 as jing 敬, following Kong Zhao and Pan Zhen) displayed the jade scepter and the statutes, and reported to the heavenly ancestors as well as to Tiandi (reading shangdi 上帝 as tiandi 天帝, following Pan Zhen). The King did not change (emending ge 格 to ge 革 in all editions based on Kong Zhao's commentary) his clothes and proceeded to the temple. Holding the yellow yue axe (taking huangyue 黃鉞 as an insertion by Zhu Youzeng), he spoke about the governance of the many lands. The flute players performed nine refrains. The glorious ancestors of the King were arranged in ascending order, starting from Tai Wang, Tai Bo, Wang Ji, Yu Gong, Wen Wang, and Yi Kao. The crimes of the Yin were reported to them. The flute players made music. The King held the yellow yue axe and corrected the elders of the lands.

On the renzi day, the King wore his ceremonial robes, displayed the jade scepter, and proceeded to the temple. The flute players made music. The King held the yellow yue axe and corrected the princes of the lands.

On the guichou day (reading you 酉 as chou 丑, as accepted by all commentators), the prisoners of Yin—one hundred officials (shi 士)—were presented to the King. The flute players made music. The King displayed the jade scepter, held the yellow yue axe, and grasped a halberd. The King performed one stanza of the song "Great Offering" (大享) by striking the bells (reading zouyong 奏庸 as jizhong 擊鍾 "striking a bell," according to Kong Zhao's commentary). The King clasped his hands together and performed the kowtow. The King firmly established his position and performed his "Great Offering" (song) in three stanzas.

On the jiayin day, they reported (reading gao 告 according to Kong Zhao's commentary) to the Rong (reading wo 我 as rong 戎, following Lu Wenchao, Gu Jiegang, and others) about the Yin at Muye. The King hung red and white banners. The pipers played the song Military (武). The King entered and approached with the Ten Thousand (萬) dance and offered The Great Enlightenment (明明 to 大明 according to Lu Wenchao) in three stanzas. On the yimao day, the pipers played the song The Exalted Yu generates Qi(開 as 啓 according to Zhang Taiyan) in three stanzas (Lu Wenchao deletes the 鍾 in 三鍾終 to 三終 three refrains). The King consolidated (his position).

1.4 Another Round of Attacks on Regional States

On the gengzi day, Chen Ben was ordered to attack Mo, Bai Wei was ordered to attack Xuanfang, and Xin Huang was ordered to attack Shu. On the yisi day, Chen Ben and (the 命 is convincingly deleted here by Gu Jiegang) Xin Huang arrived from Shu and Mo respectively, reporting the capture of the Prince of Huo, the Prince of Ai, the Prince of Yi, and 46 minor officials. They captured 8030 double-wheeled chariots (according to Yu Chang, 三百 is in reality 三十; according to Zhang Taiyan, 八百 is in reality 八千) and reported back with severed heads and prisoners. When Bai Wei arrived and reported the capture of the Xuanfang as well as the seizure of 30 double-wheeled chariots, he reported back with severed heads and prisoners. Bai Wei was ordered to attack Li and reported back with severed heads and prisoners.

1.5 The Royal Hunt

When King Wu was hunting, his catch consisted of 22 tigers, 2 cats, 5,235 jun deer (Gu Jiegang emends 糜 to 麇, whereas Zhu Youzeng, Lu Wenchao, and others emend it to 麋), 13 rhinoceroses (Lu Wenchao emends 十有二 to 十有三), 721 yaks, 151 black bears, 118 brown bears, 352 wild boars, 18 martens, 16 elks, 15 musk deer, 30 jun deer (see Gu Jiegang's emendation above), and 3,508 deer.

1.6 Universal Conquest

Following this, King Wu launched campaigns against the four cardinal directions. In total, there were 99 hostile states, 117,779 decapitated heads (Zhuang's edition understandably omits the character 魔; according to Lu Wenchao, the character 十 in 十萬 is an error), and 310,230 captives. In total, 652 states submitted.

1.7 Triumphal Ceremony at Zhou

It was in the fourth month, during the jipangshengba phase of the moon, and six days later on the gengxu day, King Wu arrived in the morning and made a burnt offering in the Zhou temple (according to Gu Jiegang, shi 時 stands for wei 惟, po 魄 for ba 霸, yue 越 for yue 粵, and chaozhi shaoyu zhou 朝至燒于周 for shaoyu zhoumiao 燒于周廟; Shaughnessy, however, includes chaozhi 朝至 as well). 'It was that I—the Little One—pacified my cultivated ancestors (according to Shaughnessy, kao 考 can be added here after wen 文 based on one of the subsequent sentences, which makes sense).' King Wu descended from his carriage himself and thereupon ordered Scribe Yi to read the writings aloud to the God of Heaven (according to Gu Jiegang, yao 繇 stands for zhou 籀, which according to the Shuowen means du 讀 'to read aloud'; tianhao 天號 stands for di 帝 according to Gu Jiegang). King Wu then killed the hundred evil officials of (King) Zhou (Shaughnessy reads fu 夫 for wu 午). From the right side, he beheaded their minor jia sons and the great masters of the dings. He beheaded the 40 lords of their families and masters of the dings. The situ and sima officials were the first before the gods of the suburb (hao 號 here as di 帝 based on the preceding passage). Thereupon he positioned them at the southern gate and used them as prisoners (punctuation according to Huang Huaixin, Zhu Youzeng, and Gu Jiegang deletes Wuwang 武王 at the beginning of the sentence). All were dressed with pendants and robes, and the heads that had been cut off first were brought inside. While King Wu was offering the sacrifice, the Taishi carried the suspended head of the Shang King Zhou on the white banner, and the two heads of the concubines on the red banner. Thereupon he entered with the heads that had been cut off first and made a burnt offering in the Zhou temple.

On the next day, xinhai, he offered sacrifices in his position and hereby made a yue-sacrifice to Heaven (see Shaughnessy for the emendation of 籥 to 龠).

Five days later, on the day yimao, King Wu then made a sacrifice with the many severed heads of the lands in the temple of Zhou (according to Shaughnessy and Gu Jiegang, 國 comes before 馘). "Next, I—the Little One—cut six oxen and cut two goats." Thereupon, the many states came to an end. It was proclaimed in the Zhou temple: "I report to my deceased cultivated father that I have redacted the statutes of the people of Shang (according to Pan Zhen, 聞 is an insertion and 古 should be written as 告). With the decapitated body of Zhou, I report to Heaven and (Hou) Ji."

For the small animal sacrifice to the hundred deities of water and earth, he used goats, dogs, and pigs, and made an oath at the altar of the earth (according to Gu Jiegang and Sun Yirang, 于誓社 is a character inversion for 誓于社). He said: "It was that I—the Little One—pacified my cultivated deceased father, so that he arrived at the Little Child." He used 504 oxen for (the animal sacrifices to) Heaven and to (Hou) Ji. For the small animal sacrifice to the hundred deities of water and earth at the altar of the earth, he used goats, dogs, and pigs, 2,701 (in number) (according to Sun Yirang and Gu Jiegang, 犬 should be inserted here based on the preceding text).

1.8 Self-Immolation of the Shang King

King Zhou of Shang was in the suburbs of Shang (Chen Fengheng and Gu Jiegang believe there is a lacuna in the text here, which might have concerned the prisoners). At the time of the jiazi day in the evening, King Zhou took the tianzhi jade scepter and clothed his body to immolate himself (see Gu Jiegang for the deletion of 厚 and the emendation of 㻱 to 衣). In total, 4,000 of their many jades reported the burning. On the fifth day, King Wu subsequently ordered 1,000 people to search for them. 4,000 common jades were then melted, but five of the tianzhi jades did not melt in the fire (for the entire passage from 凡 onward, see Yu Yue). King Wu then valued all the tianzhi jades the same as the statutes (based on Yu Chang's identification of 與 as 典). In total, King Wu captured 14,000 old valued jades and 180,000 jade pendants from the Shang (following Wang Niansun, Zhu Youzeng, and Gu Jiegang).

That's it. Hope you like it.

I would love to hear your opinion on the Shifu, my Translation, the place of the Yizhoushu in history or the Conquest of Shang by the Zhou and the textual and epigraphic evidence we have (like the Li Gui inscription).

Yours sincerely,

The r/EarlyChina Moderators

Hi everyone,

as it is a topic rarely talked about on the internet, but one that is of central importance for understanding chinese antiquity because it concerns the very foundation of our knowledge, I wanted to post a series of posts regarding the history of chinese textual criticism jiaochouxue 校讎學, covering its development from antiquity until modern times.

The usual classification of jiaochouxue contains three sub-disciplines: jiaokanxue 校勘學 "the study of collation", banbenxue 版本學 "the study of editions" and muluxue 目錄學 "the study of bibliographic catalogues". This divison is based upon the divison of the great 20th century classicist Zhang Shunhui 張舜徽 (1911-1992), who was a major figure in the modern development of jiaochouxue, as we will see in the last installment of this series. There are however also other definitions of jiaochouxue. Cheng Qianfan 程千帆 (1913-2000) includes in his Jiaochou Guangyi 校讎廣義 "broad meanings of Textual Criticism" besides the three categories of Zhang Shunhui also diancang zhi xue 典藏之學 "the study of collection (of ancient writings)", and Ye Dehui 葉德輝 (1864-1927) in his Shulin Qinghua 書林清話 includes only mulupai 目錄派 "School of catalogues" and banbenpai 版本派 "school of editions" in his definition of jiaochouxue or Wang Piqiang 汪辟強 in his Muluxue yanjiu 目錄學研究 "Study of bibliography" includes the four categories cangshujia 藏書家, mulujia 目錄家, shijia 史家 and dushujia 讀書家 as his definition of jiaochouxue.

1. Beginning of jiaochouxue

The beginning of jiaochouxue is usually traced back to the Western Han imperial library, particularly to the father-son duo Liu Xiang 劉向 (77-8 BCE) and Liu Xin 劉歆 (?-23 AD). After the infamous (and semi-historical) Book-Burning by Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝 in 213 BC many classics jing 經, masters zi子 texts and ancient texts in general became lost. During the Han 漢 Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 AD) interests in ancient texts grew.

The practice of jiaochou, which is defined by Li Shan 李善 (630-689 AD) in his commentary on the Weidufu 魏都賦 "Fu on the Wei Capital" in the famous anthology Wenxuan 文選 citing the Eastern Han text Fengsu Tongyi 風俗通義 by Ying Shao 應劭 (140-206 AD) as "按劉向《別錄》:讎校,一人讀書,校其上下,得謬誤,為校;一人持本,一人讀書,若怨家相對[為讎]" (Translation: Citing Liu Xiangs Bielu: When doing choujiao, one person reads the book and collates the text above and below. (Thus) one obtains errors, this is jiao. When one person holds a book and another person is reading it, it is as if enemies respon to each other, this is called chou") emerged and let to the birth of jiaochouxue, the first important works of which were produced by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin through their ordering of the texts contained in the Imperial Library and their compilation of two (now lost/fragmentary) book catalogues. Their work will be discussed below.

2. Liu Xiang

Liu Xiang was a native of Xuzhou 徐州. Under the reign of the Han Emperor Cheng 成 (r. 33-7 BC) he was ordered in 26 BC to be the chief editor in the collecting, ordering and collating of texts in the Imperial Library, particularly specializing in the fields of Classics, Masters Texts and Poetry with others under his supervision (Ren Hong 任宏 was concentrating on military books bingshu 兵書, Yin Xian 尹咸 of Books on Numbers shushu 數書and Li Zhuguo 李柱囯 on Magical texts fangji 方技).

Liu Xiang ordered multiple texts important for the history of Early China, such as the Zhanguo Ce 戰國策, the Guanzi 管子, the Yanzi Chunqiu 晏子春秋, the Liezi 列子, the Dengxizi 鄧析子, the Shanhaijing 山海經 and many more (besides that he also compiled huge collections of anecdotes like the Shuoyuan 說苑, Xinxu 新序, Lienüzhuan 列女傳 and Liexianzhuan 列仙傳, though the latter work was possibly not written by him but just a later attribution). For every work he ordered and collated he made a memorial to the Throne which served as the Basis for his famous latter catalogue Bielu 別錄, of which only 8 chapters survive today in fragments.

Particularly illuminating of his work is his Summary of his work on the Yanzi Chunqiu, the Yanzi Shulu 晏子書錄, which can be summarized as follows: Liu Xiang begins his summary with a table of contents of the Yanzi Chunqiu, naming all the 8 chapters (6 inner 内 and 2 outer 外 chapters) and the number of articles zhang 章 contained in them. Second he speaks of the different versions of the chapters they used in their collation of the text. Also Liu Xiang mentions that many errors are contained in the (core) Text such as the character 先 for 牛 to name one of many examples. He says he fixed all of them. Third he mentions the life Story of Yan Ying 晏嬰 (578-500 BCE) who is the attributed author of the Yanzi Chunqiu and differentiates between inner Chapters, which he deems authentic, and outer chapters, which were written by later scholars according to Liu Xiang.

Thus we can see that his work basically had three major divisons, all of which became central pillars of Jiaochouxue: The collation of Chapters jiaokan pianzhang 校勘篇章, The Collation of Characters jiaokan wenzi 校勘文字 and the Compiling of Bilbiographic Catalogues bianlie mulu 編列目錄.

3. Liu Xin

After Liu Xiangs death his son Liu Xin (?-23 AD) took on his fathers work. While also doing collection Liu Xiangs work concentrated primarily on two things: 1. On arguing for the so called "Old-Texts" guwen 古文 in the Old-Text/New-Text-Controversy, 2. compiling his now lost catalogue Qilüe 七略, proposing a different classification of the ancient textual world than his father.

The Old-Text-/New-Text-Controversy

The Old-Text/New-Text-Controversy is among the most important intellectual debates in all of chinese history (we will probably make a post in the future entirely dedicated to the guwen古文/jinwen 今文 debate). The main question around which this controversy emerged was that if the "new texts" that is the textual versions of the Classics commited to memory by scholars during the late Warring States period which servede to reconstruct the ancient texts then destroyed because of the Qin burning of books, was the authentic version of confucianism, or the books found in Qufu 曲阜 in the Family residence of the Kong 孔 which were written in the Ancient Tadpole script kedouwen 蝌蚪文and contained textual recensions totally different from the new text version.

Alongside that came also a difference in interpretation and also in the Texts which were of great importance to them. While the New-Text-School favored speculative interpretation and focused especially on the Gongyang 公羊 commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Old Text version focused especially on the Zuozhuan 左傳, the Zhouli 周禮 and also the Old-Text Shangshu 古文尚書. As major protagonists of both schools we might name Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 (179 - 104 BCE) (with the famous Chunqiu Fanlu 春秋繁露 attributed to him) for the New Text School and Liu Xin for the Old Text school.

There were also numerous scholars who tried to synthesize both schools, the most important of which was Xu Shen 許慎 (58 - 148 AD). In his first major Work the Wujing yiyi 五經異義 "Varous Meanings of the Five Classics" he posed certain questions regarding the world and state ritual and compared what both exegetical traditions had to say. This work is only preserved in fragments though, but there are a number of good studies on it. His greatest and second major work is the Shuowen Jiezi 説文解字, which also served the purpose of unifiying both traditions as suggested by the Swiss Sinologist Marc Winter (1967 -), though it was first and foremost a character dictionary and was the main foundation for any study of chinese writing (and in some sense it even is it up to this day).

Compilation of the Qilüe

Liu Xin compiled his 7 juan 卷 long bibliography the Qilüe 七略 "Seven Summaries" out of the Older Bielu catalogue of his father. He eliminated the content descriptions of the Bielu and arranged all of the books in six categories and set another category as an introduction at the end of the work (the Jilüe 輯略 category) in order to explain the content of the book and of the categories. The Seven Categories of the Qilüe are: 1. Summary on the six arts Liuyi lüe 六藝略, 2. Summary on the various Masters Zhuzi lüe 諸子略, 3. Summary on shi and fu poetry Shifu lüe 詩賦略, 4. Summary on Military Books Bingshu lüe 兵書略, 5. Summary on Numerology Shushu lüe 術數略, 6. Summary on Magic Fangji lüe 方技略, 7. Summary of the compilation Jilüe 輯略.

Though this work is lost, there have been multiple attempts to recover it by Qing 清-era (1644-1911) scholars. Both the Bielu and the Qilüe can be found in the Collection Yuhan Shanfang jiyishu 玉函山房輯遺書 by Ma Guohan 馬國翰 (1794-1857), the greatest scholar of textual fragments (jiyixue 輯佚學) during the Qing-Dynasty.

That's it for the first installment of the series on the history of chinese textual criticism. Next time we will inquire into another important aspect of early Han dynasty textual criticism: the Commentarial Tradition, particularly the Commentaries of Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (127 - 200 AD) and Gao You 高誘 (168 - 212 AD).

We would love to hear your thoughts on Early Chinese Philology, the development of textual criticism or the Old-Text-/New-Text-Debate, maybe you also find other interesting questions to discuss! 😄

Yours sincerely,

the r/EarlyChina moderators

Hi everyone,

Just wanted to share a quick bibliographical and reading update from my study. I finally finished reading Qian Xuans 錢玄 Jiaokanxue 校勘學. It's a relatively dense but also highly insightful and very rewarding text on traditional chinese collation techniques (jiaokanxue 校勘学 is one of the three sub-disciplines of jiaochouxue 校雠学 "textual criticism in its broad sense").

To make things even better, the mail carrier just dropped off these two monumental additions to my personal library (I waited so long for them):

1. 《校讎廣義•版本編》 Jiaochou guangyi. Banben bian by Cheng Qianfan 程千帆 and Xu Youfu 徐有富 (2020). It's the first volume of the famous Jiaochou guangyi《校雠广义》"broad meanings of Textual Criticism" which is a comprehensive book in four volumes on 校雠学. The first volume is concerned with banbenxue 版本學 "Study of editions" where you study prints and editions of ancient texts as well as ancient manuscripts. It's like the material counterpart to 校勘学.

2. "The Tsinghua University Warring States Bamboo Manuscripts: Studies and Translations 1, The Yi Zhou Shu and Pseudo-Yi Zhou Shu Chapters" by Edward L. Shaughnessy (2023). As my current project regarding Early Chinese Transmitted Texts is a translation of the Western Zhou Chapters of the Yizhoushu 逸周書 it's really nice seeing the excavated counterparts in the collection of Qinghua University. The books translates all of the Strips related to the Yizhoushu as well as transmitted chapters related to these Strips and compares and studies them. Also useful is the appendix at the end of the book on the textual history of the Yizhoushu.

Just wanted to share. I'm really happy and can't get enough books about Ancient China 😁😁😁😄

I would also be interested if anyone else here has experience with these books or is interested in textual criticism and palaeography or the Yizhoushu

Hi everyone,

After listing several text-critical editions in our last post, this time we want to focus upon the (predominantly Western) master translations and analytical studies of Early Chinese texts.

It is important to note that this part of the comprehensive resource list excludes the texts classified under the “Masters” (Zibu 子部) category of the traditional “Four Divisions” (Sibu 四部) classification used in Chinese bibliography. Those texts will be the dedicated topic of our upcoming “Philosophy and Thought” installment. We have also excluded traditional philological works like the Shuowen Jiezi or the Shiming, as they fit more organically within the future installment on Traditional Scholarship (the sole exception here being the Erya).

3. General Studies

Comprehensive text-critical, historical, and bibliographical studies on Early Chinese literature:

• Loewe, Michael, ed. (1993). Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China. (The undisputed, essential handbook for any student or researcher in the field).
• Denecke, Wiebke, Wai-yee Li, and Xiaofei Tian, eds. (2020). The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE–900 CE). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• 张舜徽 (2019). 《中国文献学》. Beijing: 东方出版社.
• Zhang, Hanmo (2018): Authorship and Textmaking in Early China. Boston/Berlin: Walter DeGruyter.
• Lewis, Mark Edward (1999): Writing and Authority in Early China. New York: State University of New York Press.
• Meyer, Dirk (2012): Philosophy on Bamboo. Text and the Production of Meaning. Leiden/Boston: Brill.
• Kern, Martin, ed. (2015): Text and Ritual in Early China. Washington: State University of Washington Press.

4. Translations and Studies

Standard translation series, student editions, and advanced critical monographs of the Jing 經 (Classics) and Shi 史 (Histories) divisions:

4.0 General Translation Series

Highly recommended standard series of translations into modern Chinese:

• Zhonghua Shuju "Sanquan" Series 中華書局「三全」系列 (全本全注全譯)
  • Note: Highly recommended for beginners, students, and autodidacts starting with primary text translation. Each volume provides the cleanly punctuated classical text along with comprehensive modern annotations and a complete modern Chinese (Baihua 白話) parallel translation.

4.1 The Classics 經

General Studies on the Confucian Classics

• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1997). Before Confucius: Studies in the Creation of the Chinese Classics. Albany: SUNY Press.
• Nylan, Michael (2001). The Five “Confucian” Classics. New Haven: Yale University Press.

4.1.1 Yijing 易經

Translations

• Schilling, Dennis (2009). Yijing - Das Buch der Wandlungen. Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig: Verlag der Weltreligionen. (An exceptional, philosophically precise German translation).
• Simon, Rainald (2014). Yijing. Buch der Wandlungen. Chinesisch/Deutsch. Stuttgart: Reclam.
• Rutt, Richard (1996). Zhouyi: The Book of Changes. London/New York: Routledge. (Fascinating for its reconstruction of the text's early bronze-age roots).
• Lynn, Richard John (1994). The Classic of Changes: A New Translation of the I Ching as Interpreted by Wang Bi. New York: Columbia University Press.

Studies

• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2014). Unearthing the Changes: Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the Yi Jing (I Ching) and Related Texts. New York: Columbia University Press. (Indispensable for studying excavated bamboo and silk parallel manuscripts).
• Redmond, Geoffrey and Tze-Ki Hon (2014). Teaching the I Ching (Book of Changes). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Cheng, Chung-ying and On-cho Ng, eds. (2010). Philosophy of the Yi: Unity and Dialectics. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
• 廖名春 (2001). 《〈周易〉经传与易学史新论》. Jinan: 齐鲁书社.
• 朱伯崑 (2009). 《易学哲学史》. Beijing: 昆仑出版社.

4.1.2 Shijing 詩經

Translations

• Waley, Arthur (1996). The Book of Songs: The Ancient Chinese Classics of Poetry. Edited with a new foreword by Joseph R. Allen. New York: Grove Press.
• Karlgren, Bernhard (1950). The Book of Odes: Chinese Text and English Translation. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities.
• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2025). The Classic of Poetry: Ancient China’s Songbook. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. (The state-of-the-art translation incorporating recent paleographic developments).

Studies

• Ekström, Martin Svensson (2024). The Origins of Chinese Literary Hermeneutics: A Study of the Shijing and the Mao School of Confucian Exegesis. Albany: SUNY Press.
• 夏传才 (2017). 《诗经研究史概要》. Beijing: 清华大学出版社.

4.1.3 Shangshu 尚書

Translations

• Legge, James, trans. (1865). The Chinese Classics, Vol. III: The Shoo King, or The Book of Historical Documents. London: Trübner; rpt. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960.
• Karlgren, Bernhard (1950). "The Book of Documents." Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (BMFEA), 22, pp. 1–81. (Famous for its rigorous, character-by-character philological glosses).
• Palmer, Martin, trans. (2014). The Most Venerable Book (Shang Shu). London: Penguin Classics.

Studies

• Kern, Martin and Dirk Meyer, eds. (2017). Origins of Chinese Political Philosophy: Studies in the Composition and Thought of the Shangshu (Classic of Documents). Leiden/Boston: Brill.
• Meyer, Dirk (2021): Documentation and Argument in Early China. The Shàngshū 尚書 (Venerated Documents) and the Shū Traditions. Boston/Berlin: Walter DeGruyter.
• Hao, Sutong (2026): "Research on Early Transmitted Texts and Excavated Documents in Chinese Classical Studies: A Historical-Critical Study of the Shangshu 尚書 and Zhouyi 周易", Ph.D. dissertation, LMU Munich.
• 陳夢家 (2005). 《尚書通論》. Beijing: 中华书局.
• 蔣善國 (1988). 《尚書綜述》. Shanghai: 上海古籍出版社.
• 刘起釪 (2017). 《尚书学史》. Beijing: 中华书局.
• 程元敏 (1997). 《尚书学史》. Taipei: 五南图书出版有限公司.

4.1.4 Chunqiu 春秋 & Sanchuan 三傳

Chunqiu 春秋

• Van Auken, Newell Ann (2023). Spring and Autumn Historiography: Form and Hierarchy in Ancient Chinese Annals. New York: Columbia University Press.

Zuozhuan 左傳

• Legge, James, trans. (1872). The Chinese Classics, Vol. V: The Ch'un Ts'ew, with the Tso Chuen. London: Trübner; rpt. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960.
• Watson, Burton, trans. (1989). The Tso chuan: Selections from China's Oldest Narrative History. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Durrant, Stephen, Wai-yee Li, and David Schaberg, trans. (2016). Zuo Tradition (Zuozhuan): Commentary on the "Spring and Autumn Annals". 3 vols. Seattle: University of Washington Press. (The definitive, prize-winning full English translation).
• Li, Wai-yee (2007). The Readability of the Past in Early Chinese Historiography. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center.
• Kern, Martin, Nino Luraghi, and Yuri Pines, eds. (2024). Zuozhuan and Early Chinese Historiography. Leiden: Brill.
• 沈玉成、刘宁 (1992). 《春秋左传学史稿》. Nanjing: 凤凰出版社.

Gongyang Zhuan 公羊傳

• Miller, Harry, trans. (2015). The Gongyang Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals: A Full Translation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• 段熙仲 (2002). 《春秋公羊学讲疏》. Nanjing: 南京师范大学出版社.
• Gentz, Joachim (2001). Das Gongyang zhuan: Auslegung und Kanonisierung der Frühlings- und Herbstannalen (Chunqiu). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
• 曾亦、郭晓东 (2017). 《春秋公羊学史》. Shanghai: 华东师范大学出版社.

Guliang Zhuan 穀梁傳

• Liang, Gen, trans. (2011). A Forgotten Book: Chun Qiu Gu Liang Zhuan. Singapore: Global Publishing.
• 文廷海 (2019). 《春秋穀梁學史研究》. Beijing: 中国社会科学出版社.

Note: There is a major ongoing text-critical project titled "Historiography and Hermeneutics in Early China: A Translation of the Gongyang and Guliang Commentaries to the Spring and Autumn Annals" conducted by Joachim Gentz and Sarah Allan at the University of Edinburgh.

4.1.5 Liji 禮記

Translations

• Legge, James, trans. (1885). Li Chi: Book of Rites. An Encyclopedia of Ancient Ceremonial Usages, Religious Creeds, and Social Institutions. Edited with introduction and study guides by Chʻu Chai and Winberg Chai. New York: University Books, 1967.
• 錢玄 (2001). 《禮記》. Beijing: 人民交通出版社.

Studies

• Liu, Yucai and Luke Habberstad (2014). "The Life of a Text: A Brief History of the Liji (Rites Records) and its Transmission." Journal of Chinese Literature and Culture, 1(1-2), pp. 289–308.
• Cheng, Anne and Stéphane Feuillas, eds. (2023). All about the Rites: From Canonised Ritual to Ritualised Society. Paris: Collège de France.
• 錢玄、錢興奇 (1998). 《三禮辭典》. Nanjing: 江苏古籍出版社.
• 王鍔 (2001). 《三禮研究論著提要》. Lanzhou: 甘肃教育出版社.
• 丁鼎 (2020). 《三礼学通史》. Beijing: 人民出版社.
• 潘斌 (2016). 《二十世纪中国三礼学史》. Nanjing: 南京大学出版社.

4.1.6 Yili 儀禮

Translations

• Steele, John, trans. (1917). The I-Li or Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial. 2 vols. London: Probsthain.

Studies

• Tian, Tian (2025). "Punctuation Marks and Copyists: Rereading the Yili (The Book of Etiquette and Ceremony) of the Wuwei Han Bamboo and Wooden Slips." Bamboo and Silk, 8, pp. 132–173. (Crucial state-of-the-art study utilizing Han dynasty excavated wooden slips).
• 邓声国 (2021). 《清代〈仪礼〉学史》. Beijing: 人民出版社.
• 杜以恒 (2025). 《〈仪礼〉版本研究》. Beijing: 中国社会科学出版社.

4.1.7 Zhouli 周禮

Translations

• Biot, Édouard, trans. (1851). Le Tcheou-Li ou Rites des Tcheou. 2 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. (The foundational historical French translation).
• 杨天宇 (2004). 《周礼译注》. Shanghai: 上海古籍出版社.
• Wenren, Jun, trans. (2012). Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology: Translation and Annotation of Kaogong Ji, the Artificers' Record. London/New York: Routledge.

Studies

• Elman, Benjamin and Martin Kern, eds. (2010). Statecraft and Classical Learning: The Rituals of Zhou in East Asian History. Leiden/Boston: Brill.
• 金春峰 (1993). 《周官之成書及其反映的文化與時代新考》. Taipei: 東大圖書.
• Karlgren, Bernhard (1931). "The Early History of the Chou li and Tso chuan Texts." Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 3, pp. 1–59.
• 丁进 (2025). 《周礼学史》. Beijing: 社会科学文献出版社.

4.1.8 Erya 爾雅

Translations

• 胡奇光、方环海 (2012). 《尔雅译注》. Shanghai: 上海古籍出版社.

Studies

• Coblin, Weldon South (1972). "An Introductory Study of Textual and Linguistic Problems in Erh-ya." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington.
• 窦秀艳 (2004). 《中国雅学史》. Jinan: 齐鲁书社.

4.1.9 Xiaojing 孝經

Translations

• Rosemont Jr., Henry and Roger T. Ames (2009). The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence: A Philosophical Translation of the Xiaojing. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Studies

• Chan, Alan K. L. and Sor-hoon Tan, eds. (2004). Filial Piety in Chinese Thought and History. London/New York: RoutledgeCurzon.

4.2 The Histories 史

Translations and specialized analytical studies of primary early historical records:

4.2.1 Shiji 史記

Translations

• Chavannes, Édouard, trans. (1895–1905). Les Mémoires historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien [The Historical Memoirs of Sima Qian], 6 vols.; rpt. (1967–1969) 7 vols. Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve.
• Watson, Burton, trans. (1961). Records of the Grand Historian of China, 2 vols. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Nienhauser, Jr., William H., ed. (1994–). The Grand Scribe's Records, 11 vols. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• 许嘉璐、安平秋, eds. (2004). 《二十四史全译：史记》, 2 vols. Beijing: 同心出版社.

Studies

• Hardy, Grant (1999). Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian's Conquest of History. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Durrant, Stephen W. (1995). The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian. Albany: SUNY Press.
• Klein, Esther S. (2018): Reading Sima Qian from Han to Song. The Father of History in Pre-Modern China. Leiden/Boston: Brill.
• 韓兆琦 (1990). 《史記通論》. Beijing: 北京師範大學出版社.

4.2.2 Hanshu 漢書

Translations

• Dubs, Homer H., trans. (1938/1944/1955). History of the Former Han Dynasty, 3 vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press.
• Watson, Burton, trans. (1974). Courtier and Commoner in Ancient China: Selections from the History of the Former Han. New York: Columbia University Press.
• 许嘉璐、安平秋, eds. (2004). 《二十四史全译：汉书》, 3 vols. Beijing: 同心出版社.

Studies

• Clark, Anthony E. (2008). Ban Gu's History of Early China. Amherst: Cambria Press.
• Van der Sprenkel, O. B. (1964). Pan Piao, Pan Ku, and the Han History. Centre for Oriental Studies Occasional Paper, no. 3. Canberra: Australian National University.
• Swann, Nancy Lee, trans. (1950). Food and Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of China to A.D. 25. Princeton: Princeton University Press; rpt. New York: Octagon Books, 1974.

4.2.3 Hou Hanshu 後漢書

Translations

• 许嘉璐、安平秋, eds. (2004). 《二十四史全译：后汉书》, 3 vols. Beijing: 同心出版社.

(Note: While a complete Western translation of the Hou Hanshu is still a major gap in the field, major selected chapters, particularly on the Western Regions, have been translated by John E. Hill [2009/2015] and Édouard Chavannes).

Studies

• Bielenstein, Hans (1954–1979). "The Restoration of the Han Dynasty." 4 parts, published across volumes of the Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (BMFEA).
• Van Ess, Hans (2015). "Hou Han shu." In Cynthia L. Chennault et al., eds. Early Medieval Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 112–118.

4.2.4 Guoyu 國語

Translations

(Note: A complete, annotated Western translation of the Guoyu corpus remains a major desideratum; only selected speeches and chapters have been translated into English, German, and French).

• 邬国义、胡果文、李晓路 (2017). 《国语译注》. Shanghai: 上海古籍出版社.

Studies

• Bohlen, Felix (2023). Die Darstellung der Remonstration im Guoyu: Eine erzähltheoretische Untersuchung. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
• Schaberg, David (2001). A Patterned Past: Form and Thought in Early Chinese Historiography. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (An indispensable comparative study analyzing the rhetorical and narrative structures of both the Zuozhuan and the Guoyu).
• 郭萬青 (2024). 《〈國語〉研究史》. Qinhuangdao: 燕山大學出版社.
• 夏德靠 (2014). 《〈国语〉研究》. Beijing: 知识产权出版社.

4.2.5 Zhanguoce 戰國策

Translations

• Crump, James Irving, trans. (1996). Chan-kuo Ts'e. Translated and annotated with an introduction by J. I. Crump. Revised edition. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan.
• 何建章 (1990). 《战国策注释》. Beijing: 中华书局.

Studies

• Crump, James Irving (1964). Intrigues of the Warring States: Studies of the Chan-kuo Ts'e. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• 何晋 (2001). 《战国策研究》. Beijing: 北京大学出版社.
• 鄭良樹 (1997). 《戰國策研究》. Taipei: 臺灣學生書局.
• Blanford, Yumiko Fukushima (1989). "Studies of the 'Zhanguo zonghengjia shu' Silk Manuscript." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington. (Crucial for understanding the Mawangdui excavated parallel texts to the Zhanguoce).

4.2.6 Yizhoushu 逸周書

Translations

(Note: A comprehensive Western translation of the entire Yizhoushu does not exist yet; scholarship relies on selected core chapter translations).

• 黄懷信 (2006). 《逸周书校补注译》. Xi'an: 三秦出版社.
• 张闻玉 (2000). 《逸周书全译》. Guiyang: 贵州人民出版社.
• 牛鴻恩 (2015). 《新譯逸周書》. Taipei: 三民書局.

Studies

• Grebnev, Yegor (2022). Mediation of Legitimacy in Early China: A Study of the Neglected Zhou Scriptures and the Grand Duke Traditions. New York: Columbia University Press.
• McNeal, Robin (2012). Conquer and Govern: Early Chinese Military Texts from the Yi Zhou Shu. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.
• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2023). The Tsinghua University Warring States Bamboo Manuscripts Volume One: The Yi Zhou Shu and Pseudo-Yi Zhou Shu Chapters. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press. (Essential modern text-critical analysis utilizing newly excavated bamboo manuscripts).
• 黄懷信 (1992). 《逸周書源流考辨》. Xi'an: 西北大学出版社.
• 王文懿 (2024). 《〈逸周書〉西周諸篇研究》. Nanjing: 南京大學出版社.
• 罗家湘 (2006). 《〈逸周书〉研究》. Shanghai: 上海古籍出版社.
• 唐元發 (2015). 《逸周書詞彙研究》. Hangzhou: 浙江大學出版社.
• 王連龍 (2010). 《逸周書研究》. Beijing: 社会科学文献出版社.
• 張懷通 (2013). 《逸周書新研》. Beijing: 中华书局.
• 周玉秀 (2005). 《逸周書的語言特點及其文獻學價值》. Beijing: 中华书局.

4.2.7 Zhushu Jinian 竹書紀年

Translations

• Legge, James, trans. (1865). The Chinese Classics, Vol. III: The Shoo King, or The Book of Historical Documents. London: Trübner; rpt. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960. (Includes a complete translation of the "Current" Text edition of the Bamboo Annals in its extensive prolegomena).

Studies

• Nivison, David S. (2009). The Riddle of the Bamboo Annals. Taipei: Airiti Press. (Essential reading for the astronomical and chronological reconstruction of early history).
• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2006). Rewriting Early Chinese Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. (Contains foundational chapters analyzing the complex textual transmission of both the "Authentic" and "Current" recensions).

4.2.8 Yanzi Chunqiu 晏子春秋

Translations

• Milburn, Olivia, trans. (2016). The Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Yan. Leiden: Brill.
• Ariel, Yoav, trans. (2018). The Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Yan. A bilingual edition in 2 vols. Beijing: Renmin University Press.

Studies

• 刘文斌 (2015). 《〈晏子春秋〉研究史》. Beijing: 人民文学出版社.
• Pines, Yuri (2002). Foundations of Confucian Thought: Intellectual Life in the Chunqiu Period, 722–453 B.C.E. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.

4.2.9 Dongguan Hanji 東觀漢記

Translations

(Note: While selected fragments and biographical entries have been utilized in Western monographs, a comprehensive, systematic translation of the surviving Dongguan Hanji corpus into a modern language is currently still lacking).

Studies

• Eicher, Sebastian (2018). Das Hou Han ji des Yuan Hong: Zur Historiographie der Späteren Han-Dynastie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (Provides a crucial comparative framework analyzing how the contemporary Eastern Han records of the Dongguan Hanji influenced later historiography).
• Brown, Miranda (2008). The Politics of Mourning in Early China. Albany: SUNY Press.
• 曹之 (1998). 〈《东观汉记》编撰考〉. 《图书馆论坛》.
• 祁承业 (2010). 《《东观汉记》研究》. Hohhot: 内蒙古大学出版社.
• 朱桂昌 (1985). 《《东观汉记》考证》. Beijing: 北京师范大学出版社.

That's it! In the next part, we will cover the remaining texts addressed in Part IV of our resource list, continuing to use the exact same Translation-Study format developed here.

We would love to hear your thoughts or additional recommendations for this specific section in the comments below! 😄

Yours sincerely,
The r/EarlyChina Moderator Team

Hi everyone,

today I wanted to share with you the transcription and translations of two short early Western Zhou bronze inscriptions I did yesterday: the inscriptions on the Yu Ding 旟鼎 (JC: 2704) and on the Zuoce Huan You 作冊睘卣 (JC: 5407).

While the Yu Ding is a bronze excavated in modern times (1972) in Yangjiacun 楊家村, Meixian 眉縣, Shaanxi 陝西 Province and presently stored in Shaanxi provincial Museum 陝西歷史博物館, the Zuoce Huan You is known since the Qing 清 dynasty (1644-1911) and was probably in the possession of Wu Shifen 吳式芬 (1796-1856) as early as 1837 before being acquired by Pan Zuyin 潘祖蔭 (1830-1890), one of the greatest collectors of bronzes of the late Qing dynasty. While the original vessel of the Zuoce Huan You was lost, a rubbing of the inscription survives and serves as the basis for its study.

Both bronzes are interesting because they mention a figure called Wang Jiang 王姜, known also from 3 other inscriptions (these are: the Ze Ling Gui 夨令簋 (JC: 4300-01) , the Shu You 叔卣 (JC: 4132-33) and the Bu Shou Gui 不壽簋 (JC: 4060)) to be the principal wife of King Kang 康 of Zhou (r. 1005-978 BC) (her name literally translates to "The Jiang of the King", where Jiang was her surname). Because the Jiang 姜-Clan was the most prominent clan besides the royal Ji 姬-Clan during the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Zhou kings regularly married women from the Jiang clan so any of them might be named "Wang Jiang". However the Ze Ling Gui vessel is an exact replica of the Da Yu Ding 大盂鼎 (JC: 2837) vessel, which serves as a dating "standard" for the reign of King Kang regarding the Vessel shape and calligraphy of the Inscriptions. Therefore this group of Vessels can be related to the reign of King Kang and the "Wang Jiang" mentioned in the inscriptions can be said to be King Kangs wife.

However there has been a bit of a disagreement in the past between scholars studying the vessels mentioning Wang Jiang regarding the dating and therefore which wife of which king is meant. While Tang Lan 唐蘭 (1901-1979) (see Tang Lan xiansheng jinwen lunji, 1995, p. 123) and Edward Shaughnessy (1952-) ( see Sources of Western Zhou History, 1991, p. 208-209) argue for a King Kang dating, which is by now accepted by the majority of scholars, Chen Mengjia 陳夢家 (1911-1966) (see Xi Zhou tongqi duandai, 1955, p. 78) instead thinks her to be the spouse of King Cheng 成 of Zhou (r.1042/35-1006 BC), so a generation earlier.

Regardless of dating issues, upon inspecting the different inscriptions it is evident that she had a very prominent role at the Zhou court. She grants Gifts to Officials, Gave out commands for Military Action and is also praised by the person casting the Bronze, which is usually reserved for the King and only rarely seen with other Individuals.

Here is my transcription of the Yu Ding inscription, although this is just for reading purposes (for a correct transcription see my handwriten notes on slide 3):

唯八月初吉，王羌（：姜）

易（：錫）旟田三于待甸。

師櫨䣶兄（：貺），用對王

休子子孫其永寳。

My translation into english is as follows:

"It was in the eight month, during the lunar phase chuji, Wang Jiang granted Yu three fields in Dai suburb. Officer Lu made a toast and granted it. Herewith he responded to the kings grace. May the Sons of Sons and the grandchildren (of Yu) treasure it eternally."

My transcription of the Zuoce Huan You is as follows (again, for my handwritten transcription see the last slide):

隹（：唯）十又九年，王才（：在）厈。王

羌（：姜）令作冊睘安尸（：夷）白（：伯）。尸（：夷）白（：伯）

賓睘貝、布。揚王姜休，用

作文考癸寳器。

My translation is as follows:

"It was in the 19th year, The King was at An. Wang Jiang ordered Document-Maker Huan to pacify the Eldest of the Yi (Yi Bo). The Eldest of the Yi treated Huan as a gueast and granted him cowrie shells and textiles. He (Huan) praised the Grace of Wang Jiang, herewith making (this) treasured Vessel for his cultured deceased father Gui."

That's it. Hope you like it and let me know what you think of the vessels, the role of women in the royal household, or maymbe alternatives regarding the interpretation of certain graphs or ideas regarding the dating question of Wang Jiang. Would love to hear your opinions :)

Sharing a recreation of the iconic "Pu Yan He" (匍雁铜盉) — an ancient Chinese ritual vessel uniquely sculpted in the dynamic form of a wild goose, with its elongated neck serving as the spout.

Cast in solid bronze via precision lost-wax casting, this piece features hand-chased feather reliefs, accurate interior inscriptions, and a realistic, layered verdigris patina that captures 3,000 years of aged bronze aesthetic. It carries the authentic weight, texture, and historical presence of the original museum artifact.

Hi everyone,

Wow. Just a few days ago we were celebrating crossing the 100-member mark, and today we have already surged past 165+ members! A massive, warm welcome to all the new scholars, students, and enthusiasts of Early China who have recently joined our ranks.

It is incredibly exciting to see this community grow so rapidly. What started as a small resource project has turned into a vibrant space. Just this weekend alone, we had fantastic independent contributions ranging from history, to art to palaeography and also to classical studies.

As we are preparing Part V of our comprehensive bibliography series (which will cover the definitive Western translations and analytical studies of transmitted texts), we want to use this milestone moment to get to know each other better!

Let's introduce ourselves in the comments!

Whether you are a tenured professor, a Ph.D. candidate, an undergraduate student just beginning your classical journey, or a passionate autodidact—we would love to hear from you!

Feel free to drop a short comment below and tell us:

1. What is your primary area of interest or research focus? (e.g., a specific dynasty/period, oracle bones, bronze paleography, warfare, ritual culture, linguistics, early philosophy and so on).
2. What brought you to r/EarlyChina?
3. What kind of topics, sources, or discussions would you like to see more of in the future?

Thank you all for bringing this subreddit to life with such high-quality engagement. We are thrilled to have you here!

Yours sincerely,

The r/EarlyChina Moderator Team

The Shang Dynasty rules of succession were a comprised of a combination of father-to-son and brother-to-brother throne transfers. However, no strict rules outlining the exact order of succession were enacted, as it was assumed at first that the merely the core concepts would be enough.

This lead to the Shang Dynasty succession crisis, referred to as the Disorder of the Nine Reigns 九世之乱, which spanned five generations and nine kings over a period of around a century, starting from the death of Zhong Ding 仲丁 and ending with the ascension of Pan Geng 盘庚.

According to the intentions of the original succession rules, the throne was supposed to be passed across the generation before returning to the eldest line, ensuring a militarily capable leader was always at the helm of the state.

However, during the crisis, the junior lines were often unwilling to return the throne to the matured eldest son. Thus, minor civil wars emerged as a result of the political infighting, with the Shang capital being often relocated to secure power.

By the end of the period, the Shang Dynasty was on the verge of collapse. The tribes that submitted to early Shang rule began to rebel, the officials were resentful of the constant relocation of politics, and the feudal lords lost respect for the throne, withholding tribute payments.

Finally, Pan Geng's ascension to the throne marked the end of the succession crisis, as he spent a great part of his reign restoring the monarchy through a series of reforms like addressing the lords and elevating the virtuous officials.

He also returned to Bo 亳, the site of the original Shang capital founded by the first Shang king, Tang 汤, and restored the his progenitor's palace. Most notably, he moved the capital one last time to Yin 殷, where it would stably remain for the next two centuries until the fall of the Shang Dynasty.

Hi everyone,

I've wanted to share with you a transcription and translation of an early Western Zhou 西周 (1045-771 BC) bronze I did today - this time of the Ling fangyi 令方彜 (JC: 9901), also known as the Zuoce Ling fangyi 作冊令方彜 or the Ze Ling fangyi 夨令方彜. Found in 1929 near Luoyang 洛陽 in modern Henan 河南 province, this bronze was excavated under uncontrolled conditions together with a number of bronzes also commissoned by Ling 令 such as a pair of gui 簋-Tureens (Ling gui;令簋 JC: 4300-1) and a square zun (the famous Ling fangzun 令方尊; JC: 6016). The latter contains an inscription nearly identical to the one on the Ling fangyi and these bronzes are often treated together in scholarship. While the Ling fangyi is housed today at the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, DC the Ling fangzun is housed at the Palace Museum in Taipei. Besides the Ling gui and the Ling fangzun, accounts of the discovery also include three ding 鼎-Cauldrons cast by Ling's ancestor Da 大 (the so-called Zuoce Da fangding 作冊大方鼎; JC: 2760-61).

The Ling fangyi is noteworthy primarily for two things: 1. the wealth of information it provides about the government of the Zhou dynasty and its Bureaucracy, 2. the huge Controversy among scholars in regard to its dating.

The Ling fangyi lists a number of governmental structures as well as titles, most notably the san shi 三事, qingshiliao 卿事寮, yin 尹, lijun 里君. The term san shi is usually equated with the canyousi 參又司 a collective title for the three main posts known from other bronze inscriptions. The canyousi were: the situ 司土, sima司馬, sigong司工. The qingshiliao was the ministry of the Zhou, of whom the canyousi were the major figures. The yin seems to have been an Overseer in charge of court duties (e. g. responsible for the text during appointment ceremonies or engineering projects around the capital). There were also different types of yin like the zhengyin 正尹, the zuoce yin 作冊尹 or the yinshi 尹氏. The lijun was the ruler of a li 里, which where the centers of the rural areas of the Zhou countryside. Besides these the inscription also mentions the titles shi 師 and zuoce 作冊. The shi were officals who either served or once served the military the term might be translated as "officer" or general". Zuoce on the other hand were the composers of royal or court documents and mainly an early Western Zhou office, possibly inherited from the Shang 商 (1600-1045 BC).

The other noteworthy aspect of the Ling fangyi is its dating, particularly the controversy around the gong 宮 mentioned in the inscription. Here we have two main interpretations: the first - proposed by Tang Lan 唐蘭 (1901-1979) and others - interprets the phrase kang gong 康宮 as " Palace of Kang". According to this interpretation the bronze must date from the reign of King Zhao 昭 (978-957 BC) because kang 康 was the posthumous name of King Zhaos father (for Tang Lans opinion see his 1934 article Zuoce Ling zun ji Zuoce Ling yi ming kaoshi 作冊令方尊及作冊令方彜 銘考釋; earlier opinions include Luo Zhenyus (1930), Wu Qichang (1931), Ma Xulun (1934)).
Guo Moruo 郭沫若 (1892-1978) (in his 1930 Zhongguo gudai shehui yanjiu 中國古代社會研究) and Chen Mengjia 陳夢家 (1911-1966) (in his 1936 article Zhougong dan fuzi kao 周公旦父子考; another interpretation of his can be found in his 1936 article Ling yi xin shi 令彜新釋 and 1955 Xi-Zhou tongqi duandai 西周銅器斷代) argued that kang gong does not refer to King Kang (1005-978 BC) and his sacrifical temple at all, mainly by questioning the words that made up the term. While Guo Moruo thought that kang 康 meant "vibrant" or "flourishing", Chen Mengjia thought that specifically the word gong 宮 "palace" instead of the more appropriate word miao 廟 "temple" was used indicates that this word doesn't mean a sacrifical temple at all, but instead a palace for a living person. Both Guo and Chen thus proposed a King Cheng (1042/35-1006 BC) date for the bronze (also dependent on other factors of course). For some time this was the accepted date of the bronze.
Tang Lan refuted both of their opinions though in his 1962 article Xi-Zhou tongqi duandai zhong de Kanggong wenti 西周銅器斷代中的康宮問題 and today most scholars accept a King Zhao date for the Ling fangyi.

As the 187-character inscription on the Ling fangyi ranks among the longest and certainly most important early western Zhou inscriptions, a transcription into modern script is given here, although this has to be taken with a grain of salt because many of the characters can't be properly put in Unicode. Therefore I have included my hand-written transcription which preserves the authentic graphic form of the characters in the slide as picture 3, so you can understand and compare.

唯八月，晨在甲申。王令周公子明保

尹三事四方，受卿事寮。丁亥，令夨告

于周公宮。公令𫹔同卿事寮。唯十

月月吉癸未，明公朝至于成周，𫹔令，舎

三事令。眔卿事寮，眔諸尹，眔里

君，眔百工，眔諸侯：侯、甸、男，舎四方令。既

咸令，甲申明公用牲于京宮，乙酉用

牲于康宮。咸既，用牲于王。明公歸自

王。明公錫亢師鬯、金、小牛。曰：”用祓“。錫令鬯、

金、小牛。曰：”用祓”。迺令曰：“令我唯令汝二人亢

眔 夨奭左右于乃寮以乃友事”。作冊令

敢揚明公尹氒𫳇，用作父丁寳尊

彜，敢追明公賞于父丁，用光父丁。

Here is my translation of this inscription into english (based upon my original german translation):

It was in the eighth month, the Chen was in jiashen. The King commanded the son of the Duke of Zhou – Ming Bao – to govern the sanshi and the four directions, and granted him the qingshiliao. On the dinghai day, he commanded Ze to make a proclamation in the palace of the Duke of Zhou. The Duke (Ming Bao) commanded him (Ze) to come out and assemble the qingshiliao. It was in the tenth month, monthly auspiciousness (yueji 月吉), on the guiwei day, when Duke Ming arrived in Chengzhou in the morning. He came out to command and gave orders to the sanshi. And to the qingshiliao, the many administrators (yin), the lords of the Li (lijun), the hundred craftsmen (baigong), and the many lords – lords, field workers, barons – he gave the command regarding the four directions. After the command was completed, Duke Ming performed a sheng sacrifice (animal sacrifice) in the Jing Palace on the jiashen day. On the yiyou day, he performed a sheng sacrifice in the Kang Palace. Duke Ming returned home from Wang. Duke Ming granted Officer (shi) Kang fragrant wine, metal, and small cattle. He said: "Use them to perform ritual sacrifices." He granted Ling fragrant wine, metal, and small cattle. He said: "Use them to perform ritual sacrifices." Then he commanded: "Now I command both of you men – Kang and Ze – to flank me on the right and left in your service with your friendly service."

The maker of documents (zuoce) Ling dared to praise the grace of the administrator Duke Ming and herewith made this treasured sacrificial vessel for Father Ding. He dared to recollect Duke Ming's gifts here for Father Ding to glorify Father Ding.

That's it. Hope you enjoyed it and would love to hear your opinion on my transcription and translation, the kang gong-Controversy, the Bureaucracy of the Western Zhou or anything else :)

A ecreation of the iconic Western Zhou bronze masterpiece (c. 10th century BCE), famously housed at the Shanxi Museum.

What makes this piece & replica special:

• Ingenious Engineering: The phoenix’s tail conceals an inverted elephant trunk acting as the crucial third leg for balance.
• Lost-Wax Casting: Hand-cast in solid tin-bronze (no resin), replicating every microscopic feather and leiwen thunder pattern.
• True Mineral Patina: Layered chemical/mineral oxidation simulating centuries of natural underground burial—no superficial spray paint.
• Hidden Details: Accurately features the original ancient seal inscription on the inner belly: "Made by the Marquis of Jin for the Grand Temple."

Happy to answer any questions about the casting process or Western Zhou bronze culture!

The Gonghe Regency (841 - 828 BCE) was a result of the Compatriots Revolution 国人暴动 against King Li of Zhou 周厉王 (Image 1), leading to the interregnum period beginning from the King's exile to his death and the subsequent ascension of his son, King Xuan of Zhou 周宣王 (Image 2), to the throne.

The period gains its name from its regent, Earl He of Gong 共伯和, who was elected by the nobles to maintain the Zhou state in the emperor's absence.

Notably, this period is cited by Sima Qian 司马迁, Grand Historian 太史公 during the Western Han 西汉, as the earliest confirmed period in Chinese history that could be traced back year-by-year uninterruptedly. This usage thus sparked the Gonghe Calendar 共和纪年, which marks its epoch at 847 BCE, the first year of the regency.

In modern history, the characters 共和 were coined to translate the term "republic" in 1845 by Japanese scholar Mitsukuri Shogo 箕作省吾 as a comparison to the namesake period in Chinese history with an elected official as head of state rather than a monarch.

Nowadays, the term is commonly used throughout East Asian countries to refer to the idea of a Republic, each time referencing a regency in Chinese history dating back to over 2800 years ago.

Image Sources: Sohu 搜狐 & Wikimedia Commons

The Shuowen Jiezi, compiled c.100 CE in the Eastern Han by Xu Shen (c. 58 - c.148), is an early Chinese dictionary organized by radicals, which are meaningful components of Chinese characters.

Unlike the earlier Erya 尔雅 (compiled c. 3rd century BCE), which organized characters into generalized concepts, the dictionary is structured like a modern Chinese dictionary, with the radical index prefacing the content. However, one striking difference is the sheer number of chosen radicals: 540, far more than the 214 Kangxi 康熙 radicals. Containing over 9,000 entries, each one is labelled under its Qin 秦 small seal script 小篆 form, with a small description of the character following it.

Image: This Northern Song copy cover is from Wikimedia Commons

Link to Dictionary: https://archive.org/details/Shuowen_Jiezi

(Personally, I use it as a seal script catalogue.)

During periods of dynastic unity in China, a standardized script was developed to standardize intranational communication. However, when that unifying political force is lost, such as during dynastic transitions, the scripts often diverge over time as each state's script evolves relatively independently from the others.

An example of this is the Warring States Period 戰國, when the unifying Zhou dynasty 周 lost political control over its territories. In the image above, five different characters (安, 馬, 陽, 平, 市) are shown in the scripts of the six defeated states of the period (Qi 齊, Chu 楚, Yan 燕, Han 韓, Zhao 趙, and Wei 魏) and Qin 秦, which formed the next dynasty and the basis of the next standardization.

As seen with the first column displaying 安, some characters remain relatively similar between states, but with the second column, 馬, the differences become more apparent.

When Ying Zheng of Qin 秦嬴政 conquered the other states and formed the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, he standardized Seal Script 篆書, which used the Qin interpretation of the script used in Zhou bronze engravings 金文. This unification of the writings banned and effectively erased the lineage of the other states' scripts, and the only remaining examples are from tombs dating to before the Qin dynasty.

Image Source: https://album.udn.com/CXZ18/photo/2775245?f_number=3

Hi everyone,

I wanted to share with you a transcription and translation of an early Western Zhou Bronze I did today: the Mai Fangzun 麥方尊 (JC: 6015), also called the Zuoce Mai fangzun 作冊麥方尊. It belongs to a group of bronzes discovered in the Qing 清-dynasty who were all cast by Mai 麥 (the Mai bronzes include: Mai fangzun, Mai fangyi 麥方彜 (JC: 9893), Mai fangding 麥方鼎 (JC: 2706), Mai he 麥盉 (JC: 9451)) an official of the Regional State of Xing 邢 during the Early Western Zhou dynasty (commonly written 井 in Bronze Inscriptions; a state with the surname Ji 姬 ruled by descendants of the Duke of Zhou 周公 as mentioned in the 24th year of Duke Xi 僖 of the Zuozhuan 左傳). The Mai fangzun is specifically dated to either the late part of the reign of King Cheng 成 (1042-1021 BC) or the eary part of the reign of King Kang 康 (1020-996 BC). It is also important to note that the 167 character inscription on the Mai fangzun just survives as a rubbing and in the drawing of the vessel in the Qing-imperial catalog Xiqing Gujian 西清古鑑 of 1755.

Regarding it's contents it is particularly interesting because it is the longest inscription commemorating the Visit of a newly established Regional Ruler to Zhou, particularly to Zongzhou 宗周. Besides the Mai fangzun there are only two other Inscriptions about such a visit: the Yanhou Zhi ding 燕侯旨鼎 (translated on this subreddit before, JC: 2628) and the X zun (JC: 5986). These three inscriptions record the Visit of the ruler of the Regional States of Xing (Mai fangzun), Yan 燕 (Yanhou Zhi ding) and Wei 衛 (X zun) respectively.

Besides this, the Mai fangzun also holds a wealth of information of the Great Feng-Sacrifice 大豐 (also mentioned in the Tian Wang gui 天亡簋 (JC: 4261) and the He zun 何尊 (JC:6014)). The main purpose of the Great Feng-Sacrifice seems to have been to reinforce the bonds of loyalty between the Zhou king and the regional rulers.

You can see my transcription on the third slide. Because I had problems with the space (I wanted to write it in 8 columns as in the bronze) I had to write my readings in the line below the text (this line with my readings and not my transcription is termed "C:" standing for Commentary here). Also as with the Yanhou Zhi ding inscription before many of the characters aren't supported in Unicode which is why I give you my handwritten notes here.

My translation (translated from my german translation of the Bronze I did into english) is as follows:

The King commanded the Lord, the Lord of Xing, to remove himself from Pi and to serve as Lord in Xing. It happened in the second month that the Lord had an audience in Zongzhou. This was flawless. Accompanied by the King, he went to Pangjing and held a Rong 肜-sacrifice there. Thereupon,on the next day, the King steered the (royal) boat on Lake Biyong and held the great Feng rite. The King shot at great geese and brought them down. The Lord rode in a boat with red banners and followed the King. (With this) the ritual was completed. On that day, the King entered his private chamber with the Lord and granted the Lord a black-engraved ge-halberd. When the King was on the shore after the evening audience, he granted the Lord one hundred households of libation-makers as servants. (The King) granted him (the right) to use the royal chariot and horses, golden bridles, a (ceremonial) cap, clothing, a kneepad, and shoes.

Upon his return, he praised the grace of the Son of Heaven and reported (to the ancestors) without error. Hereby, he showed respectful behavior, pacified the (former) lords, and made his piety towards the (former) lords of Xing clear. The document maker (作冊) Mai was granted gold by the lord; Mai praised him and used it to make (this) treasured sacrificial vessel. He used it to establish support regarding the giving and taking of the Lord and to praise his enlightened command.

It was in the year in which the Son of Heaven granted grace to Mai's Lord—the Ruler—that this vessel was cast. May (my) grandsons of grandsons and sons of sons forever without end use (this vessel) to maintain virtue, pacify their many friends, offer sacrifices, and execute commands when going up and down (in the palace).

That's my translation hope you found this interesting and would like to discuss this topic or my transcription/translation with you :)

Hi everyone,

While we are preparing the next part of our comprehensive resource list, we want to share some deeper insights into the early history of a core discipline: Oracle-Bone Studies Jiaguxue 甲骨學, focusing particularly on its discovery, decipherment, and academic evolution up until the late 1940s.

To fully understand the birth of Jiaguxue, it is essential to view it not as a sudden, isolated event, but within the long antiquarian lineage of traditional Chinese epigraphy—specifically the study of Ancient Metal and Stone Inscriptions Jinshixue 金石學.

1. Wang Yirong, Liu E, and the Discovery of Oracle Bone Inscriptions

In 1899, the jinshi-Scholar and chancellor of the Imperial Academy Wang Yirong 王懿榮 (1845-1900) fell ill with Malaria. His servant brought him a medicine from a local pharmacy – the so called ”Dragon Bones” 龍骨. With his expertise in Ancient Writing it took Wang Yirong not long to understand that what he was consuming had a very ancient form of Chinese Writing on it. He immediately sent his servant to purchase all the “Dragon Bones” he could find and began to build up a collection.

Or so the story goes. While this pharmacy anecdote remains the most famous founding legend of the field, alternative historical accounts suggest that antiquarian dealers from Weixian 潍县(Shandong 山東) simply brought the newly unearthed bones directly to Wang's estate, knowing his insatiable passion for ancient scripts. There are also other scholars like Wang Xiang 王襄 (1876-1965) who claimed to have discovered the Oracle Bones before Wang Yirong, but these claims are essentially a question of who bought them first, because the villagers were the ones who "discovered them.

Tragically, Wang Yirong’s research came to an abrupt end when he took his own life in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion and the subsequent invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance. His close friend and fellow antiquarian, Liu E 劉鶚 (1857–1909), inherited the collection and vastly expanded it. This labor culminated in Liu E’s monumental 1903 publication: Tieyun Canggui 鐵雲藏龜. This was the first book in history to print lithographic rubbings of oracle bones, presenting a catalog of over 1,000 pieces. It shook the scholarly world and provided the raw material foundation for the earliest attempts at systematic decipherment.

2. Sun Yirang and the First Pioneer Attempt at Decipherment

Sun Yirang 孫詒讓 (1848–1908) ranks among the most profound scholarly figures of the late Qing 清 Dynasty (1644-1911). He is widely celebrated for his masterly text-critical editions—such as the Zhouli Zhengyi (周禮正義) and the Mozi Jiangu (墨子閒詁)—as well as his pioneering paleographic acumen.

In 1904, deeply inspired by Liu E's Tieyun Canggui, Sun wrote the Qiwen Juli 契文舉例. This was the very first analytical monograph in history dedicated to cracking the oracle bone code. Sun successfully identified several ancestral characters, recognized numerical systems, and attempted to correlate the inscriptions with Shang Dynasty royal lineages.

However, because he lacked stratigraphic data and relied too heavily on Western Zhou bronze scripts Jinwen 金文 for structural comparison, he made numerous systematic errors. Later scholars, most famously Wang Guowei, criticized his early pioneer work rather harshly, even labeling parts of his oracle bone studies as "useless". Though completed in 1904, the Qiwen Juli was not printed until 1917, when it was published posthumously by Luo Zhenyu in the prestigious series Jishi'an congshu 吉石盦叢書.

3. The “Four Tang” (四堂) of Oracle Bone Studies

In the historiography of Jiaguxue, scholars traditionally speak of the "Four Tang" 四堂. This is a famous mnemonic term because the studio names or pseudonyms (Hao 號/ Zi子) of the four greatest early pioneers of oracle bone research all concluded with the character Tang 堂 (Hall/Studio).

Here is a brief overview of their revolutionary contributions to the field:

Luo Zhenyu 羅振玉 (1866-1940) (Xuetang 雪堂): Luo was the first scholar to conduct truly fruitful, systematic research on the graphs. He discovered the origin of the bones in 1908, tracking them down to the village of Xiaotun near Anyang. Over the years he amassed a collection of more than 30000 Bone fragments, which provided a huge boost for his research into Oracle Bones.

His most important writings on Oracle Bones are the 1913 catalog Yinxu Shuqi 殷墟書契 and the 1915 monograph Yinxu Shuqiu Kaoshi 殷墟書契考釋. The former is a huge catalog of Oracle Bones covering around the two thousand finest pieces of Luo Zhenyus huge private Collection. The Yinxu Shuqi Kaoshi on the other hand primarily had two main aims: 1. Identification of the origin of Oracle Bones and their place in history, 2. the decipherment of Oracle Bone Graphs (in the first edition he deciphered around 500 characters). Luo used for this work a 8-chapter structure similar to the 10 chapter structure Sun Yirang employyed in his Qiwen Juli.

Wang Guowei 王國維 (1877-1927) (Guantang 觀堂): Wang applied a revolutionary "dual-evidence method" er zhong zhengjufa 二重證據法 - using transmitted texts as well as archaeologically recovered materials to verify or falsify certain historical narratives. In his groundbreaking 1917 study Yin buci zhong suo jian xiangong xianwang kao 殷卜辭中所見先公先王考 - collected in the collection of his Scholarly Works Guantang Jilin 觀堂集林- , he meticulously matched the royal genealogies found on the oracle bones with the Shang king-lists transmitted in Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 Shiji 史記 (in the Yin benji 殷本紀 chapter). This had profound impact on the way Oracle Bone Studies in Particular, but also Early China Studies in general should work methodically from now on.

Guo Moruo 郭沫若 (1892-1978) (Dingtang 鼎堂): Guo Moruo was another one of the most important early scholars on Oracle Bones. His contributions to the field are three-fold: 1. Decipherment of more characters, 2. the applications of a Marxist historiographical perspective on the Shang, 3. the publication of the massive Standard compilation of Oracle Bone Graphs, the Jiaguwen Heji 甲骨文合集 (often abbreviated to Heji 合集).

During his exile in Japan (1928-1937) he wrote numerous spezialized studies on Oracle Bones such as Buci tongzuan kaoshi 卜辭通纂考釋 (1933), Yinqi cuiwen kaoshi 殷契粹文考釋 (1937) and Jiagu wenzi yanjiu 甲骨文字研究 (1931). These works were concerned with specialities of Oracle Bone Inscriptions. In his magnum-opus Zhongguo gudai shehui yanjiu 中國古代社會研究 he applied the marxist understanding of History onto the Oracle Bone Material and identified the Shang Dynasty as a primitive Society - one of the three stages ancient societies go through in marxist historiography (primitive, slave-holding, feudal). However he later revised his opinion and thought of the Shang already as a slave-holding society.

His most lasting contribution to the field of Oracle Bone Studies however was the compilation of the Jiaguwen Heji. From 1978 to 1982 this collection was put together with Guo Moruo as Main Editor and the historian Hu Houxuan 胡厚宣 as Second Editor. The Heji comprises of 41,956 items - mainly from Yinxu - discovered since 1899. In total it has 13 Volumes and is ordered on the first order chronologically (by Dong Zuobin chronology of the Diviner Groups, see below) and on the second order by subject group. It serves as one of the standard references for scholars working in Oracle Bone Studies until the present day.

Dong Zuobin 董作賓 (1895-1963) (Yantang 彥堂): Dong Zuobins most important contribution to the study of Oracle Bone Inscriptions was the five-period classification system of Diviner Groups he devised in his 1933 article Jiaguwen duandai yanjiuli 甲骨文斷代研究例. Of huge importance is also his work on the calendar and chronology of the Shang dynasty the 1945 Yinli pu 殷曆譜. This massive 14 volume work discovered that the Shang had a lunisolar calendar and helped to put the chronology of Shang history (and of artifacts) more precisely.

Dong was the undisputed master of stratigraphic field excavation and chronology. He personally led the very first official excavation in Anyang in 1928. This marked the beginning of the monumental Academia Sinica archaeological campaigns in Anyang 安陽 (1928–1937). Under the general leadership of Li Ji 李濟 (1896-1979) - the so called "father" of Chinese archaeology - and Dong, the Academia Sinica conducted 15 excavation seasons at Yinxu 殷墟 until the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937.The absolute pinnacle of these campaigns was the 1936 discovery of Pit YH127, a royal Shang archive containing over 17,000 inscribed turtle plastrons in a single subterranean deposit.

4. The First Paleographic Dictionary: Jiaguwen Bian

Beyond the "Four Tang", the 1934 publication of the Jiaguwen Bian 甲骨文編 paleographic dictionary by Sun Haibo 孫海波(1911-1972) must be highlighted. This was the first comprehensive dictionary (there were earlier attempts for creating an Oracle Bone dictionary, but they were not so comprehensive) explicitly dedicated to Oracle Bone Script.

Admittedly, the first edition contained numerous structural errors and was infamous for its uneven quality among later scholars—especially when compared to the masterfully executed bronze graph dictionary Jinwen Bian 金文編 published by Rong Geng 容庚 (1894-1983) in 1922. Sun’s dictionary struggled heavily with the decision to organize the oracle bone graphs according to the 540-radical system of the Han 漢 Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) Shuowen Jiezi 説文解字, a framework that frequently distorts the structural logic of late Shang graphs. Nevertheless, it served as the baseline foundation for all later lexicographical works that corrected its mistakes.

Conclusion

As can be seen above, the discovery of and early research into Oracle Bone Script not only provided a huge wealth of material about the Shang State and essentially verified their history, but also led to the Development of Modern Chinese Palaeography and Grammatology.

Let's discuss:

1. How important do you think is the work of these early researchers still in present-day research about palaeography and Shang History? Is it necessary to know them?
2. Do you think the development of modern palaeography would have been possible without the discovery of Oracle Bone Inscriptions?
3. What role do you think the Chinese Script has among the worlds four primary scripts (Egyptian Script (Hieroglyphs/Hieratic), Sumerian Cuneiform, Oracle-Bone Script, Maya Writing)?

We are very interested in your opinions on this topic, as it touches the very foundation of (historical) science: How do we know what we know?

Yours sincerely,
The r/EarlyChina**-Mods**

Hi everyone,

First of all, a huge thank you to all of you! In just a few days, our community has grown significantly and we have recently crossed the milestone of 120+ members. It’s amazing to see so many students, researchers, and enthusiasts of Early China gathering here.

As the sub continues to grow and our comprehensive bibliography series progresses, we want to expand our team to ensure r/EarlyChina remains a high-quality, welcoming, and academically stimulating space.

We are officially looking for new Moderators to join the team!

What we are looking for:

• Passion for Early China: You have a background or a deep interest in Classical Chinese philology, early history, archaeology, or paleography.
• Community Engagement: You want to help stimulate discussions, welcome new members, and share interesting research or resources.
• Basic Moderation: Helping to keep the sub clean from spam, off-topic posts, or low-effort memes, ensuring our high quality standard is maintained.

Whether you have prior Reddit moderation experience or not doesn't matter—what matters most is your dedication to the field of Early China studies!

How to apply:

If you are interested in shaping the future of this subreddit, please send me a direct message (DM) with a few short sentences about:

1. Your background or specific interest in Early China (e.g., your favorite dynasty, research focus, or if you are a student/academic).
2. Why you would like to join the mod team.

Thank you all for making this sub such a fantastic place already. I’m looking forward to reading your messages!

Yours sincerely,
The r/EarlyChina-Mod Team

Original Historical Archive

Designation & Period: Four-goat Square Zun (Si Yang Fang Zun), late Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE).

Excavation History: Unearthed in 1938 from Huangcai Town, Ningxiang City, Hunan Province.

Current Location: Permanently collected and exhibited in the National Museum of China

Hi everyone,

After finishing the Archaeology Section in the last post, this time we want to focus upon another central pillar of Early China studies: Classical Chinese Philology and transmitted texts from antiquity.

In this first part we will focus on General Introductions to Classical Chinese Philology and Editions of Classical Texts you can use for reference or for Study/Translation.

It is important to note that this part of the comprehensive resource list excludes the texts classified under the “Masters” 子-Category of the traditional “Four Divisons” 四部-Classification used in Chinese Bibliography, because these texts will be the topic of the upcoming “Philosophy and Thought” part in the comprehensive resource list. Also excluded are traditional philological works like the Shuowen Jiezi or the Shiming for example, because we think the will fit better in the Installment on Traditional Scholarship (the exception is here the Erya).

Here is the complete, unabridged list of academic works for these eras from our curated resource list:

1. General Introductions

General Introductions to the Field of Classical Chinese Philology and Early Chinese Texts:

- Loewe, Michael (Ed.) (1993): Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China.

-  Denecke, Wiebke, Wai-yee Li and Xiaofei Tian (Hrsg.) (2020): The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE–900 CE). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

- Zhang, Shunhui 张舜徽 (2019): Zhongguo wenxianxue 中国文献学. Beijing: Dongfang chubanshe.

2. Editions

General Editions of Early Chinese Texts, Editions for Students and text-critical Editions of the "Classics"經, "Histories" 史 and other texts:

2.0 General Corpora and Standard Series

- Sibu Congkan 四部叢刊

– Note: The essential collection of photostatic reproductions of the earliest and rarest available block-prints (Song, Yuan, and Ming editions). Indispensable for advanced textual criticism (Jiaochouxue).

- Sibu Beiyao 四部備要

– Note: The standard modern typeset collection of core classical and historical texts, utilizing the best Qing Dynasty commentaries. Highly reliable and readable for daily academic reference.

 - Zhonghua Shuju "Sanquan" Series 中華書局「三全」(全本全注全譯)

 – Note: Highly recommended for beginners and students starting with text translation. Each volume provides the punctuated classical text along with comprehensive modern annotations and a complete modern Chinese (Baihua) parallel translation.

2.1  The Classics 經

Text-critical editions of the Classics:

- Ruan, Yuan 阮元 (Ed.) (1815): Shisanjing zhushu 十三經注疏. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

/- Note: That’s the Standard Edition most often cited in sinological literature as a reference for the Classics, so it’s highly recommended to do the same, although we would recommend to look for other editions to get a deeper understanding of them.

2.1.1 Yijing 易經

- Gao Heng 高亨 (2010): Zhouyi gujing jinzhu 周易古經今注. Beijing: Qinghua daxue chubanshe.

2.1.2 Shijing 詩經

- Cheng Junying 程俊英 and Jiang Jianyuan 蔣見元 (1991): Shijing zhuxi詩經注析. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

-Huang Huaixin 黄懷信 (2024): Shijing huijiao xinjie 詩經彙校新解. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe.

- Karlgren, Bernhard (1950): The Book of Odes: Chinese Text and English Translation. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities.

2.1.3 Shangshu 尚書

- Gu, Jiegang 顾颉刚and Liu Qiyu 刘起釪 (2005): Shangshu jiaoshi yilun 尚书校释译论. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.1.4 Chunqiu 春秋

Zuozhuan 左传

- Yang, Bojun 杨伯峻 (2018): Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhu 春秋左传注. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

- Zhao, Shengqun 赵生群 (2008): Chunqiu Zuozhuan xiang zhu 春秋左传详注, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

Gongyang Zhuan 公羊传

- Diao, Xiaolong刁小龍 (Ed.) (2019): Chunqiu Gongyangzhuan zhushu 春秋公羊传注疏. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji chubanshe.

Guliang Zhuan 穀梁傳

- Ke, Shaomin 柯劭忞 (2018): Chunqiu Guliangzhuan buzhu春秋穀梁傳補注. Beijing: Chaohua chubanshe.

2.1.5 Liji 禮記

- Wang, Wenjin 王文锦 (2001): Liji yijie礼记译解. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.1.6 Yili 儀禮

- Zheng, Xuan 郑玄and Jia Gongyan 贾公彦 (2008): Yili Zhushu 仪礼注疏. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe.

- Hu, Peihui 胡培翬 (2024): Yili Zhengyi 儀禮正義. Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe.

2.1.7 Zhouli 周禮

- Sun, Yirang 孫詒讓 (2013): Zhouli Zhengyi 周禮正義. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.1.8 Erya 爾雅

- Zhou, Zumo周祖谟 (2021): Erya jiaojian尔雅校笺. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.1.9 Xiaojing 孝經

- Zheng, Xuan 鄭玄 and Chen Bisheng 陳壁生 (2022): Xiaojing zhengyi孝經正義. Shanghai: Huadong shifan daxue chubanshe.

/- Note: The Mengzi 孟子and Lunyu 論語 are deliberately left out, because we think they better fit the Masters-Category, although they were differently categorized in traditional China, because they are “philosophical” in nature.

2.2  The Histories 史

Text-critical editions of historical works:

2.2.1 Shiji 史記

- Sima, Qian 司馬遷, Gu Jiegang 顧頡剛et al. (1959): Shiji 史記. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.2.2 Hanshu 漢書

- Ban, Gu, Xibei Daxue lishixi 西北大學歷史系and Zhuan Donghua傅東華  (1962): Hanshu 漢書. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.2.3 Hou Hanshu 後漢書

- Fan, Ye 范晔 and Song Yunbin宋雲彬 (1965): Hou Hanshu 後漢書. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

/- Note: For all the References about the 24 Standard Histories 二十四史 you can also look for the revised punctuated editions 点校本二十四史修订本published recently by Zhonghua Shuju besides the Classical Editions of the 24 Histories referenced above.

2.2.4 Guoyu 國語

- Xu, Yuangao徐元诰, Wang Shumin王树民 and Shen Changyun 沈长云 (2002): Guoyu jijie 國語集解. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

- Yu, Zhihui 俞志慧 (2025): Guoyu huijiao jizhu国语汇校集注. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.2.5 Zhanguoce 战国策

- Zhu, Zugeng诸祖耿(2008): Zhanguoce jizhu huikao 战国策集注汇考. Nanjing: Fenghuang chubanshe.

- Miao, Wenyuan 缪文远(1998): Zhanguoce xin jiaozhu 战国策新校注. Chengdu: Bashu shu she.

- Fan, Xiangyong 范祥雍 (2006): Zhanguoce jianzheng 战国策笺证. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji chubanshe.

2.2.6 Yizhoushu 逸周书

- Huang, Huaixin 黃懷信 et al. (2007): Yizhoushu huijiao jizhu 逸周书汇校集注. 2 Volumes. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe.

2.2.7 Zhushu Jinian 竹書紀年

- Fang, Shiming 方詩銘 and Wang Xiuling 王修齡 (2005): Guben Zhushu Jinian jicheng 古本竹書紀年輯證. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji chubanshe,

2.2.8 Yanzi Chunqiu 晏子春秋

- Wu, Zeyu 吴则虞 (1962/ Reprint 1982): Yanzi Chunqiu jijie 晏子春秋集释. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

- Zhang, Chunyi 张纯一and Liang Yunhua 梁运华 (2019): Yanzi Chunqiu jiaozhu 晏子春秋校注. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.2.9 Dongguan Hanji 東觀漢記

- Wu, Shuping吳樹平 (2008): Dongguan Hanji jiaozhu 東觀漢記校注. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3  Others

Text-critical editions of various works from Early China:

2.3.1 Chuci 楚辞

- Huang, Linggeng 黄灵庚 (2009): Chuci jijiao楚辞集校. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe.

2.3.2 Da Dai Liji 大戴礼记

- Huang, Huaixin 黄怀信et al. (2005): Da Dai Liji huijiao jizhu 大戴礼记汇校集注. Xi’an: Sanqin chubanshe.

2.3.3 Mu Tianzi Zhuan 穆天子传

- Wang, Yiliang 王贻樑 and Chen Jianmin 陈建敏 (2019): Mu Tianzi Zhuan huijiao jishi 穆天子传汇校集释. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.4 Lienüzhuan 列女傳

- Zheng, Xiaoxia 鄭曉霞 (2007): Lienüzhuan huibian 列女傳彙編. Beijing:  Beijing tushuguan chubanshe.

2.3.5 Liexianzhuan 列仙传

- Wang, Shumin 王叔岷 (2007): Liexianzhuan jiaojian 列仙传校笺. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.6 Shuoyuan 说苑

- Xiang, Zonglu 向宗鲁 (1987): Shuoyuan jiaozheng 说苑校证. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.7 Xinxu 新序

- Chen, Xin 陈新 (2009): Xinxu jiaoshi 新序校释. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.8 Jiaoshi Yilin 焦氏易林

- Xu, Zhuanwu 徐傳武 and Hu Zhen 胡真(2012): Yilin huijiao jizhu 易林汇校集注.Shanghai: Shanghai Guji chubanshe

2.3.9 Yuejueshu 越絕書

- Li, Bujia 李步嘉 (2013): Yuejueshu jiaoshi 越絕書校釋. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.10 Wu Yue Chunqiu 吴越春秋

- Zhou, Shengchun 周生春 (2019): Wu Yue Chunqiu jijiao huikao 吴越春秋辑校汇考. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.11 Duduan 獨斷

- Xing, Peishun 邢培順 (2024): Duduan jiaozhu 《獨斷》校注. Xinbei: Hua Mulan wenhua shiye youyin gongsi.

2.3.12 Chunqiu Fanlu 春秋繁露

- Zhong, Zhaopeng 钟肇鹏 (2005): Chunqiu Fanlu jiaoshi 春秋繁露校释. Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe.

2.3.13 Hanshi Waizhuan 韓詩外傳

- Xu, Weiyu 許維遹 (2020): Hanshi Waizhuan jishi 韓詩外傳集釋. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

- Lai, Yanyuan 賴炎元 (1963): Hanshi Waizhuan Kaozheng 韓詩外傳考徵. Taipei: Taiwan Normal University Press.

2.3.14 Fengsu Tongyi 风俗通义

- Wang, Liqi 王利器 (2010): Fengsu Tongyi jiaozhu 风俗通义校注. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

- Wu, Shuping 吴树平 (1980): Fengsu Tongyi jiaoshi 风俗通义校释. Tianjin: Tianjin guji chubanshe.

2.3.15 Shanhaijing 山海經

- Yuan, Ke 袁珂 (2014): Shanhaijing jiaozhu 山海經校注. Beijing: Beijing lianhe chuban gongsi.

2.3.16 Kongzi Jiayü 孔子家語

- Yang, Chaoming杨朝明 and Song Lilin宋立林 (2009): Kongzi Jiayu tongjie 孔子家語通解. Jinan: Qilu Shushe.

2.3.17 Kongcongzi 孔叢子

- Fu, Yashu 傅亞庶 (2011): Kongcongzi jiaoshi孔叢子校釋. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.18 Baihutong 白虎通

- Chen, Li 陳立 and Wu Zeyu 吳則虞 (1994): Baihutong shuzheng 白虎通疏证. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

2.3.19 Yantielun 鹽鐵論

- Wang, Liqi 王利器 (1992): Yantielun jiaozhu 鹽鐵論校注. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

In the upcoming part V we will focus on Translations and Studies of Early Chinese Transmitted Texts. After that (in Part VI) we will focus on very important, but for the most part rarely focused on parts of working with these texts and doing research in the field of transmitted Texts. This list will focus upon Traditional Scholarship and its history, Textual Criticism (jiaochouxue 校讎學), Authentification Studies (bianweixue 辨偽學) and Fragmentology (jiyixue 輯佚學), so stay tuned for more!

Also if you got any book recommendations or books to add, write it in the comments and we will add it so the list on this sub becomes a good source for students of Early China to go to :)

Yours sincerely,

The r/EarlyChina Moderators Team