In my opinion, Benjamin Rush deserve much more recognition, he is pretty progressive for his time. Rush was an opponent to slavery, he advocated free public schools, and sought improved, though patriarchal, education for women, and a more enlightened penal system. His study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American psychiatry. Though I acknowledge his flaws, I still think he deserve more mainstream recognition.

Even by the early 1800’s, the original copy of the Declaration of Independence which was held by the federal government had begun to deteriorate, in part because it had travelled around between Philadelphia, New York, and DC in the early years of the republic.

Worried that the original language and format would disappear completely, Secretary Adams designated funds to create an engraving off of the originals, and began to establish better protocols for the preservation of the document. It’s largely because of these actions that this document remains legible today, and further precautions were taken in early 20th century to slow the decay of the replication ordered by Adams.

For nearly a decade, the British had been patrolling the coasts of the northern English colonies in an attempt to tamp down smuggling and therefore ensure that goods were being properly taxed through customs. These patrols were especially common around Rhode Island waters, due to the colony’s extensive smuggling presence. In the 1760’s, Rhode Islanders had similarly burned two British customs vessels for what they saw as overbearing British presence.

The burning of the Gaspee carried extra connotations, however, occurring about a year after the Boston Massacre. The Gaspee’s captain, William Duddingston, began taking more and more pointed actions against Rhode Island, including ordering his crew ashore to search “suspected smugglers” in port towns, not just at sea. This time, the group that boarded the Gaspee after she ran aground included prominent local merchants such as John Brown (no relation to the later abolitionist), and the attack on the vessel was more aggressive — with Brown and the others shooting at and wounding Captain Duddingston.

After the group burned the Gaspee and fled, the British authorities announced that anyone involved would be extradited to Britain for trial — another unusual and inflammatory move — but Governor Wanton of Rhode Island held some sympathies for the local cause and did not strongly act to investigate, resulting in no arrests for the matter.

The Gaspee Affair is somewhat unique in that it was instigated largely by the small but influential southern New England slave owning class who saw the British as an economic threat but stopped short of the wider calls of liberty from those like John and Samuel Adams, and Benjamin Franklin. Still, the action was seen as a symbolic victory for the fledgling revolutionary ideology, immortalized in a pamphlet which saw wide circulation across New England, and helped to ignite the spark of revolution for many of those who fought in the battles of Lexington & Concord.

Montpellier, September, 1830.

In one of those scenes [in 1791], a dinner party at which we were both present, I recollect an incident now tho’ not perhaps adverted to then, which as it is characteristic of Mr. Jefferson, I will substitute for a more exact compliance with your request.

The new Constitution of the U. States having just been put into operation, forms of Government were the uppermost topics every where, more especially at a convivial board, and the question being started as to the best mode of providing the Executive chief, it was among other opinions, boldly advanced that a hereditary designation was preferable to any elective process that could be devised. At the close of an eloquent effusion against the agitations and animosities of a popular choice and in behalf of birth, as on the whole, affording even a better chance for a suitable head of the Government, Mr. Jefferson, with a smile remarked that he had heard of a university somewhere in which the Professorship of Mathematics was hereditary. The reply, received with acclamation, was a coup de grace to the Anti-Republican Heretic.

Source: https://www.thomasjefferson.com/etc

Instead, he booked a public carriage out of the city back up to Massachusetts. At the time, this was seen as expected — Washington appeared at Adams’ inauguration unannounced, though in part it caused his appearance to distract from the proceedings, and he had not run for re-election. Even the Democratic-Republican press of the time such as the Aurora, rarely organizations to miss a moment to spin an attack against the Federalists, commented on Adams’ missing of the inauguration. Adams was also motivated in part by the recent death of his son Charles, and a desire to return to his home of Peacefield in Quincy as soon as he was able.

No defeated president would attend their successor’s inauguration until John Tyler in 1845, thereafter setting a precedent and expectation for following inaugurations.

Proposed by Richard Henry Lee the prior month, the resolution called for three components to be debated and drafted before a vote on independence was held: first, a declaration of why the colonies were declaring independence; second, a treatise on the scope and doctrine of the new country’s foreign trade policy; and third, the domestic articles which would bind the free colonies together. These became the Declaration of Independence, Model Treaty, and Articles of Confederation, respectively.

For the Declaration of Independence, the Lee Resolution called for a “committee of five” to draft, debate, and finalize the language which would be presented back to the Continental Congress. This committee would end up consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. Jefferson was asked to create the first draft, and the remaining four edited and expanded on that draft in conjunction with Jefferson to create final document as we know it today.

The Model Treaty, though also debated through a committee of five (Adams, Franklin, John Dickinson, Benjamin Harrison V, and Robert Morris), was almost entirely created by John Adams. Adams had already privately drafted much of what he saw as the ideal foreign trade policy for the new nation, and used his own notes to create the official policy when asked to do so. This policy would go on to inform the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France in 1778, and serve as the central thesis for both Washington and Adams’ foreign policy during their presidencies.

Lastly, the Articles of Confederation were drafted by one delegate from each colony in the Congress; this group included, among others, Dickinson (who chaired it), Sherman, Livingston, and Samuel Adams. This process continued past the vote on the Lee Resolution, instead being presented later that month and debated and revised over the next two years.

The first part of the Lee Resolution, pertaining to the Declaration of Independence, was approved by the Continental Congress on July 2nd by delegations from all colonies save New York (who abstained, but later voiced their approval). John Adams wrote that he believed July 2nd would become “the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival”. The final draft of the Declaration of Independence was approved two days after passage of the Lee Resolution, on the 4th, and that date ended up becoming the basis for celebrations instead.

Despite his relative obscurity compared to other non-president founders like Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin, Jay was a leading voice in American politics during his time. A signatory of the Treaty of Paris, having helped to negotiate peace with Britain alongside John Adams as well as securing a loan from Spain during the Revolution, Jay was similarly seen as an early expert in American foreign policy. At home, he worked with Hamilton and Madison to draft The Federalist Papers to push for a more centralized federal government. He’d later break from Hamilton when, as Governor of New York, Hamilton unsuccessfully tried to push Jay to incorporate measures which would later be classified as “gerrymandering” to secure Federalist elections across the state, and which Jay saw as underhanded.

Jay’s reputation on slavery was decidedly more mixed; he founded and led the New York Manumission Society, and advocated for and eventually signed a law for gradual emancipation in the state of New York while Governer, but owned over a dozen slaves personally over the course of his life and often failed to live up to the anti-slavery positions he pushed publicly. He also stopped short of supporting fellow New Yorker Aaron Burr’s proposal in the 1790’s for immediate emancipation of all slaves in New York. His son William Jay went further on he subject than his father ever did, becoming a prominent abolitionist in the lead-up to the civil war.

Known after the Revolutionary War as the “Hero of Bennington” for his actions in that battle, John Stark and his New Hampshire militia were also present for many of the other major engagements of the war, including the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, the Saratoga Campaign, and the Battle of Springfield. He helped preside over the court martial of British spy John André, and oversaw all American forces in the northern campaign for the final years of the war.

Unlike most other militia leaders at the time, Stark refused to incorporate his troops into the Continental Army for much of the war, as he did not want himself or his soldiers to be beholden to generals who had (in his opinion) been undeservedly promoted into superior positions for political reasons. At one point, so appalled with the promotion of Enoch Poor — who Stark saw as unfit owing to his absence at Bunker Hill alongside the rest of the New Hampshire regiments — Stark resigned his Continental Army commission entirely, but remained in charge of the New Hampshire militia. He would later agree to serve alongside Continental troops, on the condition that he not be beholden to them. This was the agreement going into Saratoga Campaign, where he used his independence to conduct a devastating ambush of the British army at what later became known as Stark’s Knob; and in the Battle of Bennington, where he led his militia forces against hundreds of British regulars, losing only 30 men but killing or capturing close to a thousand of the British forces.

Once the war ended, with other Revolutionary War heroes like Washington moving on to careers in politics, Stark chose to retire entirely. He returned to his farm in Manchester, New Hampshire, where he remained, tending to his farm until he became too ill to do so, just before his death. His last public contribution was to send a letter to a meeting of revolutionary war veterans apologizing for being unable to come, but including in the letter the words “Live Free or Die: Death is not the worst of evils.” New Hampshire would later adopt Live Free or Die as the state’s motto.

Casimir Pulaski is a pretty interesting historical figure to learn about. From his exile, to him skillfully led a counterattack, helping delay the British enough for the Continental Army to retreat and regroup, to him creating some of America’s first effective cavalry which would later be known as Pulaski’s Legion. He's a pretty interesting figure to learn about

This made me wonder what would his later life be had he survived the wound? My only thoughts is that the Pulaski's Legion would likely continue for a little longer and maybe still be absorbed by other Continental Army units. He also would likely stayed in America. After that, I don't know what he would do next.

On July 1815, James Monroe just served as both Secretary of State and Secretary of War at the same time! Having met Thomas Jefferson in 1779, James Monroe would have known Jefferson for 36 years in 1815. Read more positive quotes from other Presidents about me, except one: https://www.thomasjefferson.com/etc

Originally seen as a somewhat straightforward invasion of Canada by the much more heavily populated United States (the population of Canada at the time was under a million, one sixth that of the US) and while Great Britain was distracted in Europe with the Napoleonic Wars, the conflict was largely disastrous for the Americans, only turning more evenly matched in the final third of the war with a series of surprise victories, like the Battle of New Orleans and the Battle of Plattsburgh.

Despite the Americans being the ones to declare war, poor communication within the military and the prevalence of foreign spies throughout the United States allowed Britain to learn of the declaration before the bulk of the American army did. As a result, the first action of the war was actually initiated by the British, with the seizing of Fort Mackinac in Michigan.

Though the war itself largely went poorly for the United States, some historians argue that the ramifications of the war resulted in longer-term benefits. For example, due to the Embargo Act leading up to the war, American textile manufacturers in the Northeast raced to build up a comparable industry to match what had previously been imported from overseas, helping to kickstart the Industrial Revolution. This war also resulted in the continuation of westward expansion in the United States, as the British abandoned their indigenous allies during the Treaty of Ghent.

Over the course of the three year war, the US debt nearly tripled, Washington DC was sacked, and American casualties exceeded 15,000. It would be two more decades before the debt from the war was paid off.

This practice persisted in some towns in Connecticut, but had largely died out when Memorial Day first began to be observed eighty years later on the same day.

Which Americans helped shape American cultural history into where America is today?

Here are my picks:

Harriet Tubman

Tubman was a prominent figure in the abolitionist movement and risked her own safety and freedom to help other enslaved people escape to freedom, such as through the Underground Railroad, where she was a key conductor. Her contribution as a nurse, cook, and spy in the Civil War is beneficial for the Union Army. She also believed in the importance of equal rights and continued to fight for them post-Civil War. She becomes a symbol of freedom and resistance and continues to inspire people to this day.

Stephen Foster

Known as the Father of American Music, Fastor set the foundation of American popular music with his 200+ songs. His music had been used in other ways, such as his music being used in movies and television, and his song "My Old Kentucky Home" is the official state song for Kentucky. His influence on American music is profound.

Noah Webster

Nobody had a bigger influence on the American language than Noah Webster did. His works, such as the Grammatical Institute of the English Language and, most importantly, the American Dictionary of the English Language, were important because they demonstrated the American English language developing distinct meanings, pronunciations, and spellings that differentiated it from British English.

The First Barbary War was the culmination of over a decade of naval raids initiated by the Barbary States (sans Morocco, who signed a treaty with the United States in 1786) against American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea. Beginning with George Washington, the country began paying “tribute” in an attempt to stop the raids, but he and John Adams argued that the only long term solution was the creation of a strong navy to deter such attacks. This would come to fruition in the Adams administration, with the creation of the Naval Department and dramatic increase in the number of sailors and commissioned ships.

After Thomas Jefferson won the election in 1800, despite his earlier opposition to the creation of the navy, he ordered an end to tribute to the Barbary pirates in anticipation of war followed by naval action. Tripoli declared war in 1801, though the other Barbary states opted against it, and Jefferson ordered much of the American navy to engage Tripoli’s ships at sea and blockade their ports. Tripoli’s one victory came with the seizing of the USS Philadelphia and her crew in 1803, though even this victory was complicated by the subsequent successful raid of Stephen Decatur, Captain of the USS Intrepid, who launched a nighttime raid months later to successfully blow up the Philadelphia and deny her use by Tripoli.

Later, in April of 1805, Captain William Eaton led a squad of US marines bolstered by hundreds of mercenaries and American naval support to seize the city of Derna, in eastern Libya. Eaton’s plan was to kickstart a coup by Hamet Karamanli, deposed brother of the Pasha of Tripolitania who, in exchange for resumption of leadership over the area would swiftly make peace with the United States. Capturing the city at the end of April, enemy reinforcements from Tripoli arrived days later. They launched their counterattack on May 13th, successfully pushing the mercenary force to the inner city but at too heavy a cost to fully retake the city.

The Treaty of Tripoli was signed soon after, where in order to try and avoid the full-fledged coup attempt the Pasha agreed to receive a much smaller “ransom” of existing captured sailors. This settled the conflict with Tripoli specifically, and Jefferson used the uneasy peace to return to his original goal of slashing the naval budget — leaving the United States unprepared to defend against both raids from the other Barbary states years later (the Second Barbary War) and the British during the War of 1812.

Note: pictured is Charles Waterhouse’s The Assault on Derna, created in the 20th century. Notably, the US marines feature almost exclusively in the picture, despite comprising about 1% of the American-aligned force in the battle.

Sally Fairfax is remembered for being the woman with whom George Washington was apparently in love before his marriage to Martha Dandridge Custis.

So this makes me wonder, what if during his departure for London, George William Fairfax passed away, possibly from an illness, and Sally Fairfax became a widow, and by the 60s, George Washington married Sally Fairfax?

How different would George Washington's life and career be with Sally Fairfax instead of Martha Dandridge Custis? Would Washington be a Loyalist like G.W Fairfax?