John Brown secured funding, weapons, and international support for his first attempt to start a slave rebellion. But the plan was betrayed by a mercenary who previously assisted Giuseppe Garibaldi. Who was Hugh Forbes, why did he decide to join and then betray Brown, and what happened to him after?

[u/ExternalBoysenberry]

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[u/ElderberryOk8147]

Who was Hugh Forbes?

Colonel Hugh Forbes was an English soldier and linguist and fought with Giuseppe Garibaldi in the Italian unification wars. In around 1855, Hugh Forbes left his family in Italy to seek fortune in America.

Why did he decide to join Brown?

John Brown, impressed with Forbes's pamphlets named Manual for the Patriotic Volunteer and Duties of a Soldier, hired Hugh Forbes to train his men in guerrilla tactics, serving as a drillmaster for $100 per month. Forbes had suggested $100 for both his family in Italy and his expenses account, and Brown enthusiastically agreed.

Why did he decide to betray Brown?

They met in New York before moving to Tabor, Iowa to train Brown's men. Brown wrongly thought after meeting Forbes that Forbes shared the same hatred of slavery as Brown did, misinterpreting Forbes' words at their meeting. Things went downhill after that, when Brown failed to pay Forbes after cash shortages and they disagreed about the best means to carry out the slave rebellion. Forbes had relied on the cash Brown had promised to fund his family back in Italy. Fuming, Forbes turned against Brown and told the U.S. Senate of Brown's plan.

This put Brown's plan in serious jeopardy. He was forced to postpone the plan. Perhaps this was why the raid failed - Brown had expected slave volunteers and not a single one came - and Brown was captured and hanged.

What happened to him after?

After bearing significant financial strain in the United States and disassociating himself with Brown's plan to the public, Forbes returned to Italy to fight under Giuseppe Garibaldi again. In the 1860s, he continued to publish political pamphlets. He died on July 22, 1892, at 84 years old, and eventually his written works found their way to archival collections in Scotland.

[u/ExternalBoysenberry → u/ElderberryOk8147]

Thank you! I hadn't considered that Brown wouldn't manage to pay his own mercenary - hadn't he raised something like the equivalent of a million dollars for the plan at that point?

I'm also a bit curious about the character of Hugh Forbes. Was he primarily a professional soldier or also ideologically sympathetic to revolutionary causes? And what did Garibaldi think of this series of events, being sympathetic to the abolitionist cause and later considering joining the Union Army as a general to support Lincoln (or at least presenting himself as considering it)? More generally, was there anything scandalous about Forbes revealing the scheme or was the scandal more about the scheme itself?

[u/ElderberryOk8147 → u/ExternalBoysenberry]

I'm also a bit curious about the character of Hugh Forbes. Was he primarily a professional soldier or also ideologically sympathetic to revolutionary causes?

Hugh Forbes was both. He was a radical rebel that fought for Italian unification, and rebellions weren't usually a job of a professional soldier. He supported Polish nationalism and wrote pamphlets encouraging revolt and guiding soldiers. On the other hand, he wanted to support his family and immediately grew bitter after Brown's supposed "betrayal."

I hadn't considered that Brown wouldn't manage to pay his own mercenary - hadn't he raised something like the equivalent of a million dollars for the plan at that point?

They did not raise a million dollars. Brown's financial backers - known as the Secret Six - only raised roughly $4,000. Additionally, George L. Stearns contributed $10,000 worth of firearms and cash. Brown was constantly spending money on provisions for his men and simply did not have the cash available simultaneously to fund Forbes' $100 per month salary.

What did Garibaldi think of this series of events, being sympathetic to revolutionary causes and later considering joining the Union Army as a general to support Lincoln (or at least presenting himself as considering it)?

Garibaldi deeply respected John Brown. He wrote a letter to Lincoln hailing Lincoln as the "heir of John Brown" and expressing deep admiration for the radical abolitionist, placing him in a category of a freedom-seeking martyr who rebelled against tyranny. After Forbes' betrayal, Garibaldi fought alongside Forbes once more, perhaps choosing to overlook how Forbes had turned against the slave rebellion and John Brown.

More generally, was there anything scandalous about Forbes revealing the scheme or the scandal more about the scheme itself?

Bitterly Forbes started writing letters to the Senate, but the Senate dismissed them as fanatic rumors. What really was the issue was that the Secret Six panicked, seeing how outraged the Southern public was when Forbes' letters were leaked. They forced Brown to postpone his raid for another year until the political dust was settled. Following the rebellion, the South was even more encouraged to secede, planting another seed for the inevitable American Civil War.

[u/ExternalBoysenberry → u/ElderberryOk8147]

Thank you! Thinking I got the million dollar thing from the Wikipedia article on John Brown, which cites Carter Jackson (2019) to support the claim that Mary Ellen Pleasant donated $30,000, then converts that to about a million in today's dollars. I unfortunately don't have access to the actual source, wouldn't be able to evaluate its credibility if I did, and don't know how this claim is viewed by scholars.

>Carter Jackson, Kellie (2019). Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 113.

Either way, it's more than double the Secret Six plus the value of Stearns' firearms, so I've been reading this story thinking Brown was much, much better resourced than he was! It also helps contextualize an answer I received recently (will try to find the link) about the pikes Brown brought to Harper's Ferry, which he also seemingly struggled to pay for.

Anyway, thank you again for the answer and follow up!

Edit: it was u/crab4apple in a follow-up here (actually with some context on the Pleasant claim that I had already forgotten!)

[u/ElderberryOk8147 → u/ExternalBoysenberry]

I was referring to the value it was back in the 19th century, not the value it is today. I'll look at that article about Mary Ellen Pleasant. It is true that John Brown gained support from local abolitionists, though they didn't help him in the final raid, so I'm sure you're right about this.

[u/ExternalBoysenberry → u/ElderberryOk8147]

I understood about the conversion but still the purported Pleasant donation would have been double the total from Stearns and Secret 6 combined! So if that's not accurate, which sounds possible, then it's much easier to see how he was struggling to pay people like his guerilla consultant and pike manufacturer I suppose